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UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH

Uarlington JVl.emorial Juiorary

HISTORY

BRITISH BIRDS,

INDIGENOUS AND MIGRATOET.

HISTORY

BRITISH BIRDS,

INDIGENOUS AND MIGRATORY:

INCLUDING

THEIE ORGANIZATION, HABITS, AND RELATIONS;

REMARKS ON CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE ;

AN ACCOUNT OE THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS OE BIRDS, AND

OBSERVATIONS RELATIVE TO PRACTICAL

ORNITHOLOGY.

IlLtrSTEATED BY

NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.

BY WILLIAM MACGILLIVRAY, A.M., LL.D.

PEOFESSOE OP NATrEAI/ HISTOET, AND lECTrEEE ON BOTANY, IN MAEISCHAl
COllEGE AND TJNIYEESITY, ABEEDEEN ;

WEMBIB OP THB WEESERIAN NATORAL HISTORY AST) ROTAL PHYSICAL SOCIETIES OF EDIXBURGH, OF THB

MATtTRAL HISTORY SOCIETIES OP BOSTOX AST) PHIUIDELPHIA, OP THE LYCEUM OP NEW YORK,

or THB LITERARY AMD PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OP SOUTH CAKOLINA, ETC.

VOL. I.

AQUATIC BIEDS.

LONDON :

WILLIAM S. ORR AND CO., AMEN CORNER,

PATERNOSTER ROW.

1853.

HISTORY

BRITISH BIRDS,

INDIGENOUS AND MIGRATORY :

INCLUDING

THEIR ORGANIZATION, HABITS, AND RELATIONS;

REMARKS ON CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE;

AN ACCOUNT OF THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF BIRDS, AND

OBSERVATIONS RELATIVE TO PRACTICAL

ORNITHOLOGY.

ILLUSTRATED BY

NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.
BY WILLIAM MACGILLIVEAY, A.M., LL.D.

PKOFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY, AND LECTURER ON BOTANY, IN MARISCHAL
COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY, ABERDEEN ;

MEMBER OF THE WERNERIAN NATURAL HISTORY AND ROYAL PHYSICAL SOCIETIES OF EDINEVRGH, OF THE

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES OF BOSTON AND PHILADELPHIA, OF THE LYCEUM OF NEW YORK,

OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOrHlCAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH CAROLINA, ETC.

VOL. IV.

CURSOEES, OR RUNNERS.

TENTATORES, OR PROBERS.

AUCUPATORES, OR STALKERS.

LATITORES, OR SKULKERS.

LONDON :

WILLIAM S. ORR AND CO., AMEN CORNER,
PATERNOSTER ROW.

1852

TO HER MOST GRACIOUS MAJESTY

THE QUEEN,

THIS

HISTORY OF BRITISH BIRDS,

TO WHICH HER MAJESTY HAS BEEN GRACIOUSLY
PLEASED TO EXTEND HER PATRONAGE,

IS DEDICATED,

WITH THE MOST PROFOUND RESPECT,

BY HER MAJi^TY'S
MOST FAITHFUL SUBJECT,

AND MOST DEVOTED SERVANT,

WILLIAM MACGILLIVRAY.

Edinburgh, 1, Wharton Place,
25th Jime, 1840.

PREFACE,

As the wounded bird seeks some quiet retreat, where,
freed from the persecution of the pitiless fowler, it may pass
the time of its anguish in forgetfulness of the outer world ;
so have I, assailed by disease, betaken myself to a sheltered
nook, where, unannoyed by the piercing blasts of the North
Sea, I had been led to hope that my life might be protracted
beyond the most dangerous season of the year. It is thus
that I issue from Devonshire the present volume which,
however, contains no observations of mine made there, the
scenes of my labours being in distant parts of the country.

So many years have elapsed since the publication of the
third volume, which ended the series of Land Birds, that
those interested in the completion of the work must have
despaired of ever seeing more of it. Unexpected events,
however, are of daily occurrence ; and I now have the prospect
of presenting to those in whose eyes the previous volumes
have found favour the volumes containing the Waders and
the Swimmers, which will conclude the series.

In this, the fourth volume, are contained the Orders of
the Cursorial, Tentatorial, Aucupatorial, and Latito-
RiAL Birds, — including all the British Waders, or Shore
Birds, amounting to seventy species. The descriptions are
in all respects similar to those of the Land Birds. It may
be hoped that they will be found more correct, as, having
mostly been written twelve years ago, they have benefited
by the many opportunities of improving them that have
occurred. It had been intended to confine this volume to

viii PREFACE.

the Waders ; but by this arrangement it was found that the
last volume, should all the Swimming Birds be referred to it,
would be disproportionately large ; and thus there is included
in the present a portion of the first order of that series — the
two families of the AnseriticB and Cygni7ice, Geese and Swans,
containing fourteen species ; — the entire number described
being thus eighty-four. The fifth volume will contain
eighty-six.

It is well that the observations from which these descrip-
tions have been prepared were made many years ago, when I
was full of enthusiasm, and enjoyed the blessings of health,
and freedom from engrossing public duties : for I am per-
suaded that now I should be in some respects less qualified
for the task, more, however, from the fiiilure of physical than
of mental power. Here, on the rocky promontory, I shiver
in the breeze which, to my companion, is but cool and
bracing. The east wind ruffles the sea, and impels the little
waves to the shores of the beautiful bay, which present alter-
nate cliff's of red sandstone and beaches of yellow sand,
backed by undulated heights and gentle acclivities, slowly
rising to the not distant horizon, fields and woods, with
villages and scattered villas, forming — not wild nor altogether
tame — a pleasing landscape, Avhich in its summer and autum-
nal garniture of gi'ass and corn, and sylvan verdure, orchard
blossom and fruit, tangled fence-bank and furze-clad common,
will be beautiful indeed to the lover of nature. Then, the
balmy breezes from the west and south will waft health to
the reviving invalid. At present, the cold vernal gales sweep
along the channel, conveying to its haven the extended fleet
of boats that render Brixham, on the opposite horn of the
Bay, one of the most celebrated of the southern fishing-
stations of England. High over the waters, here and there,
a solitary Gull slowly advances against the breeze, or shoots
athwart, or with a beautiful gliding motion sweeps down the
aerial current. At the entrance to Torquay are assembled
many birds of the same kind, whicli, by their hovering near
the surface, their varied evolutions, and mingling cries, indi-
cate a shoal, probably of Atherines or Sprats. On that
little pyramidal rock, projecting from the water, repose two

PREFACE. ix

dusky Cormorants ; and, far away, in the direction of Port-
land Island, a Gannet, well known by its peculiar flight,
winnows its exploring way, and plunges headlong into the
deep. But neither time nor place are favourable to the
observation of the Wading tribes, although the country
around supplies the greater number of those found in Britain.
It is not until disabled that the observer of the habits of
wild animals becomes sensible of the happiness he has enjoyed,
in exercising the faculties with which his benign Creator has
endowed him. No study or pursuit is better adapted for such
enjoyment, or so well fitted to afford pleasures not liable to
be repented of, than Natural History. Is there any ordinary
occupation or profession — Law or Medicine, Mathematics,
Greek or Latin, or Engineering, or Fighting, or Commerce,
Trade or Farming — that tends more to bring a man into
sensible relation to his Maker ? Yet how often have I heard
persons, lay and clerical — but not one of them having the
least taste for the study of nature, whether as a mere science,
or as a part of theology — insinuate, and lament, that natural-
ists forget all regard to God in the study of His works, and
hint that they themselves, ignorant of what they consider it
of no importance for them to know, have wisely chosen the
good part. How different is the feeling of a pious man who
has studied nature ! And are there not at least as many pious
men among naturalists as in any other class of people ? — and
are not those who have carefully studied the works of God
better qualified to join intelligently with the Psalmist in
giving Him the glory due to His excellent power and wisdom,
than those who superciliously sneer at beetles and birds' skins,
skeletons of alligators, and scales of fishes .'* May this mag-
nificent study, second to none but Theology, daily gain more
favour in the eyes of the public ; and be the time not distant
when observers shall arise capable of giving gi-eater accuracy
and precision to our knowledge of British Birds. While the
world endures — be it a thousand years or ten millions of
centuries — the works of God will never be fully comprehended
by man; and thus, there is delightful occupation in view for
all time. I have exercised the facul ties given me upon them,
and if men of more intellect, and having better opportunities,

X PREFACE.

have dnnp more, I envy them not. I knove that the perusal
of the following pages will aflford a not despicable source of
instruction to those who are candidly disposed to receive it,
and of amusement to such as do not refuse to be pleased with
anything but what proceeds from those holding theoretical
views like their own.

Torquay, 20M March, 1852.

APPENDIX TO THE PREVIOUS VOLUMES.

Since the publication of the first three volumes of this
work, individuals of a considerable number of species, not
previously observed in Britain, have occurred in various parts
of the country. No branch of Zoology is more suited to general
apprehension, more in accordance with popular predilection,
more gratifying to observers who are less desirous of ob-
taining solid knowledge than of merely amusing them-
selves, and yet more worthy of the keenest regards of the
philosophical inquirer, than Ornithology, the pursuit of Avhich
can now be carried on without encountering difficulties which
beset many other departments of Natural History. The
game-preservation mania, which has given rise to so much
crime, and caused so much destruction to human life, and
unnecessary addition to human misery, presents, indeed, an
impediment, more firmly maintained by many than ever.
In most parts of Britain, it is by stealth only that even the
well-known " birdstufier " of a district, can procure anything
beyond the most common objects ; and the enthusiasm of the
young rural student is no recommendation to the regard of
the gamekeeper, or to the encouragement of the lord of the
soil. Yet, practical ornithologists, " field naturalists,"
enlightened and experienced, not a few, are to be found all
over England and a great portion of Scotland, as well as
Ireland ; and thus, objects that before would have attracted
little more than slight regard, are now, when they present
themselves, sought after with enthusiasm, and when procured,
receive all due appreciation. Even with all their zeal, it
seems wonderful that so many " new species" should have

xii APPENDIX TO PREVIOUS VOLUMES.

been obtained of late years. Of these it is necessary to give
some account, though I may be held excusable for not enter-
ing into minute details respecting them. They are all "strag-
glers" from distant regions, chiefly fiom the south of Europe.
1. Vultur f ulcus. Griffon Vulture. Of the family of
tlie Vulturina;, and the typical genus Vultur, which is charac-
terized by having the bill strong, moderately compressed ;
the upper mandible with the sides convex, the tips decurved
and pointed, the nostrils large, oblong, oblique, near the edge
of the cere ; the lower mandible with the sides nearly erect,
the tip obtuse, but thin-edged ; the feet very strong ; the
tarsus reticulated with small scales ; the anterior toes webbed
at the base, the third toe very long ; the claws arched, mode-
rately compressed, acute ; the head and neck covered with
short down ; the wings very long and broad ; the third and
fourth quills longest.

The species here noticed has the bill pale yellowish-grey ;
the cere bluish-black ; the feet bluish-grey ; the claws black ;
the head and neck covered with white doAvn ; the upper parts
light yellowish-brown; the primary quills and tail-feathers
blackish-brown; the lower parts light reddish-brown, paler
anteriorly. Male about 40, female 48 inches in length.

It is said to inhabit Turkey, Greece, and other European
countries, as far north as France and Germany, and to occur
in various parts of Africa. An individual, caught by a young
man on the rocks near Cork Harbour, in the spring of 1843,
came into the possession of Lord Shannon, who had it care-
fully stuffed, and presented it to Mr. R. Ball, for the collec-
tion in Trinity College, Dublin.

2. Aquila ncovia. Spotted Eagle. Tail slightly rounded
not extending beyond the wings ; plumage reddish-brown,
lighter on the head, neck, tarsus, and inner part of tibia ;
quills and tail-feathers blackish-brown. Young with the
])lumage dark chocolate-broAvn, feathers of the upper parts
tipped with a crescent of pale yellowish-brown, the upper
parts with pale spots. Male about 23, female 26 inches in
length.

It inhabits- cliiefly the southern countries of Europe, but
extends as far north as the Baltic, and has been found in

APPENDIX TO PREVIOUS VOLUMES. xiii

various parts of Asia and Africa. A bird of this species was
shot, in January 1845, on the estate of the Earl of Shannon,
in the county of Cork. It -was described by Mr. R. Davis,
jun., of Clonmel, in a letter to Mr. Thompson, as " a minia-
ture of the Golden Eagle, about a third less than a male of
that species ; except the tail-coverts, and some spots on the
veing-coverts and breast, it is entirely of a deep glossy blackish-
brown." Another bird of the same species had been killed
in the same place a few days before,

3. Ciiculus glandarius. Great Spotted Cuckoo. Feathers
of the head elongated, acuminate, forming a decumbent crest
of a dark-grey colour ; upper parts greyish -black, the feathers
of the wings and the tail-coverts tipped with white ; the tail
long, graduated, dark greyish-brown, tipped with white, the
medial feathers lighter.

Inhabits northern Africa and the south of Europe, occa-
sionally extending into Germany. An individual, pursued
by Hawks, had flown into a hole in a stone wall, and was
caught by two persons in March, 1842, in the island of Omagh,
It is now in the Museum of Trinity College, Dublin.

4. Ceryle Alcyon. Belted Kingfisher. The genus Ceryle
differs little from Alcedo, the bill being only stouter, and the
general form more robust ; the wings long, pointed, with the
second and third quills longest ; the tail short and even.

The celebrated Belted Kingfisher of America is about
twelve inches in length, crested, with the upper parts, cheeks,
and a broad belt across the fore part of the breast, light blue,
the shaft of each feather darker ; the lower parts white ; a
small white spot before the eye, and another on the lower
eyelid ; quills black, primaries barred with white at the base,
and having the inner web of that colour for half its length,
secondaries broadly edged with light blue, dotted and tipped
with white, and having the inner w^eb barred with the same ;
tail-feathers dusky, edged with blue, barred and tipped with
white. Female with the sides, and a band across the middle
of the breast light red.

Two individuals have been met with in Ireland, as re-
corded by Mr. Thompson. One of them was shot by Frede-
rick A. Smith, Esq., at Annsbrook, county of Meath, on the

VOL. IV. h

xiv APPENDIX TO PREVIOUS VOLUMES.

t36th of October 1845. The other was shot by the game-
keeper of Mr. Latouche of Luggela, county of Wicklow, and
is now in the collection of Mr. Wan-en.

5. Progne j)urj}i/7'ea. Purple 3Iartm. Progne differs
from Hirundo chiefly in liaving the bill stonter, and in some
other unimportant distinctions, not appreciable without a
comparison of specimens representative of the various genera
into which the Ilirundinte have latterly been divided.

The Purple jSIartin has the wings as long as the dceply-
emarginate tail ; the plumage silky, shining, purplish-black,
with steel-blue reflexions ; the quills and tail-feathers brown-
ish-black ; the tarsi and toes purplish-black. The female
has the lower parts light grey, streaked with black. Length
Ij inches.

Generally distributed in North America, where it is as
great a favourite as our Window Martin is in England.
Wilson, Audubon, and Nuttall have given full and interest-
ing accounts of its habits. The latter author says : — " This
beautiful species, like many others of the family, seeks out
the dwellings of man, associating himself equally with the
master and the slave, the colonist and the aboriginal. To
him it is indifierent whether his mansion be carved and
painted, or humbled into the hospitable shell of the calabash
or gourd. Secure of an asylum for his mate and young
while under the protection of man, he twitters forth his
gratitude, and is everywhere welcomed to a home. So eager
is he to claim this kind of protection, that sometimes he
ventures hostilities with the Blue-birds and domestic pigeons,
whom he often forces to abandon their hereditary claims.
Satisfied with their reception and success, like so many
contented and fiiithful domestics, they return year after year
to the same station. The services of the Martin in driving
away Hawks and Crows from the premises he claims are also
important inducements for favour : he has even the courage
to attack the redoubtable King-bird, when his visits are too
familiar near the nest. At the approaching dawn the merry
Martin begins his lively twitter, which, continuing for half a
minute, subsides until the twilight is fairly broken. To this
prelude succeeds an aniniated and incessant musical chatter-

APPENDIX TO PREVIOUS VOLUMES. xv

ing, sufficient, near the dwelling, to awaken the soundest
sleeper. His early vigils arc scarcely exceeded by the
domestic cock : the industrious farmer hears the pleasing
call to labour, and associates with the favourite bird the idea
of an economical, cheerful, and useful guest. In the Middle
States, from the 15th to the 20th of April, the Martins begin
to prepare their nest, which is usually made of green or dry
leaves, straws, hay, and feathers, laid in considerable quan-
tities. The eggs, pure white, are from four to six, and
without spots. They rear two broods in the season. Several
pairs also dwell harmoniously in the same box. The male,
very ^attentive to his sitting mate, also takes part in the task
of incubation ; and his notes at this time have apparently
a peculiar and expressive tenderness. The food of the
Martin is usually the larger winged insects, as wasps, bees,
large beetles, as the common Cetonia or goldsmiths, which
are swallowed whole. His flight possesses all the swiftness,
ease, and grace of the tribe. Like the Swift, he glides along
as it were without exertion. Sometimes he is seen passing
through the crowded streets, eluding the passengers with
the rapidity of thought ; at others he sails among the clouds
at a dizzy height, like something almost ethereal."

It is stated by Mr. Yarrell, in the second edition of his
valuable History of British Birds, that, according to infor-
mation received from Mr. Frederick M'Coy, of Dublin, a
female of this species had been shot near Kingstown, and
placed in the Museum of the Royal Dublin Society. He
further informs us that, " during the first week of September,
1842, two other examples of this same species were shot by
Mr. John Calvert, of Paddington, at the Kingsbury Reser-
voir ;" one of them a young bird of the year, the other an
old male.

6. " Turdus aurigaster. Gold-vented Thrush^ This
species, which appears to be now generally referred to the
genus Turdus, presents, in my opinion, a much greater
de\dation from that group than Petrocincla. The differences
in its bill and feet, and its style of colouring, are, I tliink,
quite sufficient to sanction its removal to another group.

The bill is considerably widened at the base, with the

xvi APPENDIX TO PREVIOUS VOLUMES.

ridge prominent; the tarsi short, much compressed, very
thin-edged behind ; feathers of the forehead and crown
slightly elongated ; bill and feet black ; head blackish-
brown ; neck, back, wings, and tail uniform umber-browTi ;
throat and fore-neck clove-brown ; the breast lighter, passing
into dull- white ; the feathers under the tail bright yellow.
Length about 8 inches.

Mr. Thompson states that, by the kindness of Dr. Burkitt
of Waterford, who has a collection of birds killed in Ireland,
he exhibited an individual of this African Thrush to the
Natural History Section of the British Association, held at
Cork in 1843. It was shot by a country lad at Mount
Beresford, three miles and a half ftom Waterford, and is the
only individual known to have occurred in Europe. Mr.
Yarrcll has figured and described the identical specimen in
the Supplement to his British Birds, and in the second
edition of that work.

7. Petrocmcla saxatilis. Common Hock-Thrush. The
genus Petrocincla, allied to the Thrushes, properly so called,
and the Saxicolinse, especially the Vitiflorse, is characterized
by a rather slender, compressed bill, the upper mandible with
the ridge narrow, the notches obsolete, the tip very small, and
slightly decurved, the lower mandible straight, with the tip
acute ; tarsus rather stout, short, compressed, anteriorly with
a long plate and four scutella ; lateral toes about equal ;
claws slender, arched, much compressed, acute ; short bristles
at the base of the bill; wings rather long, the third quill
longest ; tail short, even, or slightly emarginate.

The species inhabit the rocky and stony parts of the
mountainous districts of the southern and middle divisions of
Europe.

Petrocincla saxatilis has the head, neck, and fore part of
the back greyish-blue, the scapulars tinged with brown, the
rest of the back white ; the upper tail-coverts dark brown ;
the wings and two middle tail-feathers dark brown, the other
tail-feathers and the lower part of the body light chestnut-
red. Length 8 inches.

Mr. Yarrell has figured and described a specimen obtained
" on the 19th of May, 1843, by Mr. Joseph Trigg, who shot

APPENDIX TO PREVIOUS VOLUMES. xvii

it at Therfield, near Royston, in Hertfordshire, wliile it was
sitting on an ash-tree in the evening. It inhabits the moun-
tainous tracts of the south of Europe.

8. Alauda cristata. Crested Lark. Feathers of the
head elongated, acuminate, erectile ; bill slightly arched ;
hind claw straight, longer than the toe ; upper part of the
head light yellowish-brown, streaked with dusky ; hind neck
and ear-coverts dark brown ; back and wing-coverts brown,
each feather with a medial dusky patch ; quills chocolate-
brown, middle tail-feathers light brown, the rest dusky, the
outer two light red at the end ; throat white ; fore neck,
breast, and sides pale yellowish-brown, streaked with darker ;
the rest of the lower parts plain yellowish-white ; bill and
feet yellowish-gi*ey. Length nearly 7 inches.

In the DubHn Penny Journal of February 27, 1836, is a
notice, signed J. W. R., of a specimen shot by the writer
near Taney, a few weeks before. Another, subsequently
killed in Sussex, is described by Mr. Yarrell. The species is
said to occur in most countries of Europe, from the Baltic to
the Mediterranean, as well as in North Africa, Egypt, and
Anatolia,

^. Alaudahrachydactyla. Short-toed Larh. Bill straight ;
hind claw straight, not longer than the toe ; upper parts light
reddish-yellow, streaked with deep brown; throat, and a
band over the eyes, pure white ; breast and sides pale red ;
abdomen reddish-w^hite ; the two middle tail-feathers black-
ish-brown, bordered with deep red, the next three on each
side bordered and tipped with light red, the next reddish-
white on the outer web, the outermost nearly all of that
colour, but more reddish toward the end ; bill and feet light
brown. Length nearly 6 inches.

As stated by Mr. YaiTcll, an individual taken at Shrew^s-
bury is the only known British representative of this species,
which is said to inhabit Spain, Italy, and the south of
France.

10. Agelaius phceniceus. Red-winged Marsh- Blackbird.
The birds of the genus Agelaius somewhat resemble Starlings
in appearance and habits. They have the bill much stouter,
however, shorter than the head, conical, tapering to an acute

xviii APPENDIX TO PREVIOUS VOLUMES.

point. They are gregarious, granivorous, and, being extremely
numerous, often inflict great injury on the crops. The genus
belongs to America, and, with others, is part of the extensive
family of the Icterinoe, to which systematic writers have
assigned different stations in their arrangements.

The " lled-wing," or " Red-winged Starling," of North
America, is about nine inches in length ; its plumage glossy
black, the smaller wing-coverts scarlet, their first row yellow,
at the tip whitish. The female is much smaller, with the
upper parts dark brown ; some of the smaller wing-coverts
tinged with red ; wings and tail blackish-brown, the feathers
margined with brownish-red, the first row of small coverts
and secondary coverts narrowly tipped with whitish; a
yellowish-brown band over the eye ; lower parts longitudi-
nally streaked with dusky and whitish ; the fore-neck tinged
witli dull carmine.

Very abundant in North America, by the ornithologists
of which country its habits have been fully and pleasantly
described. In vol. I. of the Zoologist, the Rev. Richard
Lubbock informs us that a male, said to have been accom-
panied by another, was shot near Rollesby Broad, Yarmouth,
and came into the possession of J. H. Gurney, Esq., in a
fresh state, in June 1842. Mr. Yarrell mentions another
individual shot among the reeds at Shepherd's Bush, a
swampy situation about three miles west of London, on the
Uxbridge Road.

11. Perdix petrosa. Barhary Partridge. This species
has been admitted into the British Fauna, because an indi-
vidual was found dead at Edmondthorpe, about six miles
from Melton Mowbray, in Leicestershii-e, in April 1842.
Mr. Yarrell has figured and described this specimen, it
having been lent him by Mr, Thomas Goatley, of Chipping
Norton, Oxfordshire.

The Barbary Partridge has the bill, the bare space
around the eyes, the tarsi, toes, and claws red ; the sides of
the head bluish-grey ; its upper part and the hind-neck
chestnut-brown ; the neck with a broad collar of the same,
spotted with white ; the back and tail greyish-brown ; the
wing-coverts edged with light red ; the primary quills

APPENDIX TO PREVIOUS VOLUMES. xix

brownish-black, their outer web greyish-brown; the fore-
neck bluish-grey; the breast buff; the sides barred with
black, white, and chestnut ; the rest of the lower parts
reddish-yellow. Length 13 inches.

It inhabits Turkey, Greece, Calabria, Spain, and France,
and is also extensively distributed in Africa.

12. Hcmipodius Andaliisicus. Andalusian Hemipode.
The genus Hemipodius is composed of small birds of the
family of the Perdicinai, few of them so large as the Common
Quail, and is more particularly characterized by being desti-
tute of hind toe, and by having the wings of moderate
length, very broad, the primary quills much incurved, the
outer three longest, and the tail very short, its feathers
decurved, not stronger than the coverts which conceal them.

The Andalusian Hemipode has the upper parts brown,
barred with brownish-black and yellowish-white ; the head
with a longitudinal light red band ; the wing-coverts yel-
lowish-brown, toward the end paler, with a dusky spot;
quills and tail-feathers greyish-brown ; throat white ; fore-
neck pale chestnut ; lower parts yellowish-white ; sides
barred with semi-lunar brown spots. Length about 6 inches.

An individual was shot, in November 1844, by the game-
keeper on the Cornwell estate, in Oxfordshire, about three
miles from Chipping Norton, as indicated by Mr. Thomas
Goatley in the Annals of Natural History, Vol. XIV. It
was figured and described by Mr. Yarrell in his Supplement.
Mr. Goatley also states that another had since been killed
near the same spot by the same person, but was not pre-
served.

Several other species are stated to have occurred, espe-
cially—

Acanthylis caudata. Ansfralian Sprmg-tailed Swallow.

Sylvia luscinioides. Savi's JVarhler.

Sylvia tiirdoides. Great Sedge Warbler.

Sylvia Hippolais, Temm. Melodious Willow- Wren.

Regulus modestus. Dalmatian Kinglet. Mr. Gould, in
his Birds of Europe, has introduced a new species of
Regulus, of which he had seen only a single specimen, a
male, shot in Dalmatia. Mr. J. Hancock, Newcastle, met

XX APPENDIX TO PREVIOUS VOLUMES.

with a bird apparently of the same species, on the coast of
Northumberland, in September, 1838. His description, in
Ann. Nat. Hist. II. 310, is as follows: — " Length 4-J^ in. ;
breadth 6Mn. ; length from the carpus to the end of the
wing 2^ in. ; tail IJ-^in. ; the bill from the gape to the tip
nearly 7^-f^ in., and from the tips of the feathers, which extend
to the extremity of the nostrils, ^ in.

" The whole of the upper plumage is greenish-yellow ;
on the centre of the crown of the head is a streak of paler ;
a light lemon-coloured streak extends over the eye from the
base of the bill to the occiput ; a short streak of the same
colour passes beneath the eye, and a narrow band of dusky
passes through the eye and reaches the termination of the
auriculars. The under parts pale yellow ; the ridge of the
Aving bright lemon colour ; wing feathers dusky, edged with
pale yellow, becoming broader on the secondaries ; two con-
spicuous bands of lemon colour cross the coverts ; the wings
reach to within three quarters of an inch of the end of the
tail. Bill brown, with the under mandible paler at the
base ; mouth yellow ; legs and toes brow'n, with the under
surface of the toes inclining to yellow ; claws brown.

" Its manners, as far as I had an opportunity of observing
them, were so like those of the Golden-crested Wren, that
at first I mistook it for that species. It was continually in
motion, flitting from place to place in search of insects on
umbelliferous plants, and such other herbage as the bleak
banks of the Northumberland coast affords. Such a situation
could not be at all suited to the habits of this species ; and
there can be little doubt that it had arrived at the coast
previous to or immediately after its autumnal migr-ations."

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Intkoductoey Obseevations - - - - 1

Essential Chaeactees of Tin: Oeders - - 9

OEDER XIII. CTJESORES. RUNNERS.

Characters of the Cursores - - - 1 2

FAMILY I. GRUIN^. CRANES AND ALLIED SPECIES 15

Geitps I. Getjs. Ceane - - - 17

1. Grus cinerea. The Grey Crane - - 20

FAMILY II. OTIN^. BUSTARDS AND ALLIED SPECIES 25

Gentts I, Otis. Bustaed - - - 26

I.Otis Tarda, The Gr^t Bustard - - 30

2. Otis Tetrax. The Little Bustard - - 35

GeXUS II. CtTESOEITJS. CoiTESEE - - - 40

1. Cursorius Europseus. The Cream-coloured Courser 42

Geitus III. Glaeeola. Peatincole - - 46

1. Glareola Pratincola. The Collared Pratincole - 49

ORDER XIV. TENTATORES. PROBERS.

Characters of the Tentatores - - - 54

FAMILY I. PLUVIALIN^. PLOVERS AND ALLIED SPECIES 66

Gents I. (Edicnemtjs. Thick-knee - - 75

1. (Edicnemus crepitans. The Stone Thick-knee 77

xxii CONTENTS.

Genus II. Pluviaxis. Plovek - - 83

1. Pluvialis Squatarola. The Grey Plover - 86

2. Pluvialis am-ea. The Golden Plover - 94

3. PluviaHs Morincllus. The Dotterel Plover - 104

Gentjs III. CHAiADKius. Ring-Plover - - 114

1. Charadrius Hiaticida. The Common Ping-Plover 116

2. Charadrius Cantianus. The Kentish Eing-Plover 125

3. Chai'adrius minor. The Little Ring-Plover - 129

Genus IV. Vanellus. LAPA\^xG - - 131

1. Yanellixs cristatus. The Crested Lapwing - 133

Genus V. Steepselas. Tubnstone - - 141

1. Strepsilas Interpres. The CoUared Turnstone - 143

Genus YI. H^matopus. Otstee-c.vtchek - 149

1. Haematopus Ostralegus. The Pied Oyster-catcher 152

FAMILY IT. TRINGIN^. SANDPIPEES AND ALLIED SPECIES 161

Genus I. Machetes. Ruff - - - 169

1. Machetes pugnax. The Common RufF - 171

Genus II. Tringa. Sandpiper - - - 183

1. Tringa Canutus. The Ash-coloured Sandpiper - 185

2. Tringa pectoralis. The Pectoral Sandpiper - 190

3. Tringa rafcscens. The Buff-breasted Sandpiper - 194

4. Tringa maritima. The Purple Sandpiper - 197

5. Tringa Cinclus. The Black-breasted Sandpiper or

Dunlin - - - - 203

G. Tringa subarquata. The Curlew-billed Sandpiper 215

7. Tringa Schinzii. Schinz's Sandpiper - 222

8. Tringa platyrhyncha. The Plat-billed Sandpiper 224

9. Tringa minuta. The Little Sandpiper - 227
10. Tringa Tcmminckii. Tcmminck's Sandpiper 232

Genus III. Calidris. Sanderlino - - 235

1. Calidi*is arenaria. The Common Sandorling 237

CONTENTS.

Genus IV. NtiMENiirs. Cuelew - - - 241

1. Numenius Arquata. Tlie Great Ciirlcw - 243

2. Numenius Phceopus. The Whimbrel Curlew - 253

Genus V. Limosa. God^it - - - 258

1. Limosa rufa. The Bar-tailed Godwit - - 260

2. Limosa ^gocephala. The Black-tailed Godwit 269

Genus VI. Maceoehamphus. Long-beak - - 274

1. Macrorhamphus griseus. The Grey Long-beak 275

FAMILY III. PHALAROPINiE. PHALAROPES AND ALLIED

SPECIES - - - - - 281

Genus I. Phalaeopus. Phalaeope - - 283

1. Phalaropus lobatus. The Grey Phalarope - 284

Genus II. Lobipes. Lobe-foot - - 289

1. Lobipes hyperboreus. The Eed-necked Lobe-foot 291

FAMILY lY. TOTANINiE. TATLERS AND ALLIED SPECIES 299

Genus i. REcxmviEosTEA. Avoset - - 304

1. Recurvirostra Avocetta. The Black-and-white

Avoset - - - - 306

Genus II. Hijia^topus. Stilt-shank - - 310

1. Himantopus melanopterus. The Black-winged

Stilt-shank - - - 312

Genus III. Glottis. Long-shank - - 316

1 . Glottis Chloropus. The Green-legged Long-shank

or Green-shank - - - 319

Genus TV. Totanus. Tatlee - - - 325

1 . Tetanus fuscus. The Dusky Red-shank Tatler 328

2. Totanus Calidris. The Common Red-shank Tatler 333

3. Totanus Ochropus. The Green Tatler - 342

4. Totanus Glareola. The AVood Tatler - - 346

xxiv CONTENTS.

Genits V. AcTiTis. "Weet-weet - - - 350

1 . Actitis Hypoleucos. The White-breasted "Weet-

vreet - . . . 351

2. Actitis macularia. The Spotted Weet-weet - 356

FAMILY Y. SCOLOPACINiE. SNIPES AND .\LLIED SPECIES 359

Genus I. Scolopax. Skipe - - - 363

1. Scolopax major. The Great Snipe - - 364

2. Scolopax GaUinago. The Common Snipe - 368

3. Scolopax Sabini. Sabine's Snipe - - 377

4. Scolopax Gallinula. Jack Snipe - - 380

Genus II. Rusxicola. "Woodcock - - 384

1. Rusticola sylvestris. The Common "Woodcock 386

ORDER XV. AUCUPATORES. STALKERS.

Characters of the Auciipatores - - - 397

FAMILY I. ARDEIN^. HERONS AND ALLIED SPECIES 399

Genus I. Botaueus. Bittern - - 408

1. Botaurus stellaris. The European Bittern - 410

2. Botaurus lentiginosus. The American Bittern 417

3. Botaurus minutus. The Little Bittern - 423

4. Botaurus comatus. The Squacco Bittern - 428

Genus II. Ntcticorax. Night-Heron - - 431

1 . Nycticorax Gardeni. Grey jN"ight-IIeron - 433

Genus III. Ardea. Heron - - - 438

1. Ardea cinerea. The Grey Heron - - 440

2. Ardea purpurea. The Purple Heron - 453

Genus IV. Egeetta. Egret - - - 458

1. Egretta nigrirostris. The Black-billed Egret 460

2. Egret alba. The Yellow-billed "White Egretta - 465

3. Egretta Gai-zetta. The Little \\liite Egret - 471

4. Esrretta russata. The Buff-backed Esrret - 475

CONTENTS.

Genus V. Ciconia. Stoek - - - 479

1. Ciconiaalba. The \yiiite Stork - - 481

2. Ciconia nierra. The Black Stork - - 485

FAMILY II. TANTALIN2E. TANTALI AND ALLIED SPECIES 488

Genus I. Ims. Ibis . - - . 490

1 . Ibis Falcinellus. The Glossy Ibis - 493

Genus II. Platalea. Spoonbill - - - 500

1 . Platalea Leucorodia. The White Spoonbill 503

ORDER XVI. LATITORES. SKULKERS.

Characters of the Latitores - - - 508

FAMILY I. PARRINiE. JACANAS AND ALLIED SPECIES 511

Genus I. Rallus. Rail - - - 518

1. Rallus aquations. The "Water Rail - 521

Genus II. Cbex Ckake . . _ 525

1. Crex pratensis. The Com Crake - 527

2. Crex Porzana. The Spotted Crake - - 535

3. Crex Baillonii. Baillon's Crake - - 539

4. Crex pusiUa. The Little Crake - - 541

Genus III. Gallintjla. Gallintju: - - 544

1 . Gallinula Chloropus. Green-footed Gallinule, or

Water-hen - - - - 547

Genus IY. Fuuca. Coot - - - 557

1. Fulica atra. Bald Coot - - - 560

Remakes on the Swimming Bihds - - 567

ORDER XVII. CRIBRATORES. SIFTERS.

Characters of the Cribratores - - - 571

CONTENTS.

FAMILY I. ANSERINE. GEESE AND ALLIED SPECIES 579

Gentjs I. AifSEE. Goose ... 535

1. Anser ferus. The Thick-billed Grey Goose 589

2. Anser segetum. The Narrow-billed Grey Goose 595

3. Anser brachyi'hynchus. The Short-billed Grey Goose 602

4. Anser albifrons. The AMiite-fronted Goose - 609

5. Anser Canadensis. The Canada Goose - 614

Genus II. Beenicla. Beenicle Goose - - 619

1. Bemicla leucopsis. The White-faced Bemicle-

Goose .... 622

2. Bernicla Brenta. The Black-faced Bernicle-

Goose - - - - 629

3. Bernicla nificollis. The Eed-necked Bemicle-

Goose .... 634

Gentjs III. Chenalopex. Fox-Goose - - 637

1. Chenalopex .^gyptiacus. The Egyptian Fox-

Goose - - - - 639

Gentts IV. Plectkopteetjs. Sptje- winged Goose - 643

1. Plectropterus Gambensis. The Gambo Spur-
winged Goose . _ . 644

FAMILY II. CYGNINiE. SWANS AND ALLIED SPECIES 646

Genus I. Ctgnus. Swan - - - 649

1. Cygnus immutabilis. The Changeless Swan - 654

2. Cygnus musicus. The ^VTiooping Swan - 659

3. Cygnus Bewickii. Bewick's Swan - - 669

4. Cygnus Americanus. The American Swan - 675

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE FIGURES.

PLATES.

I. Digestive Organs of Lapwing, Dunlin, and Grey Phalarope.
IL Digestive Organs of Oyster-catcher, Cuilew-billcd Sandpiper, and Redshank,
in. Digestive Organs of Black-billed Egret.
IV. Digestive Organs of Com Crake, and Eald Coot.

WOOD CUTS.

Fig. 1. Head of Grey Crane, Grus cinerea. Reduced three-eighths, page 20

2. Head of Little Bustard, Otis Tetrax, - - - 35

3. Head of Cream-coloured Courser, Cursorius Europaeus, - 42

4. Head of Collared Pratincole, Glareola torqiiata, - - 49

5. Sternum of Crested Lapwing, Vanellus cristatus, - 56

6. Foot of Golden Plover, Pluvialis aurea, - - - 67

7. Wing of Common Eing-Plover, Charadrius Hiaticula. Kcduced

one-third, . . . . . 68

8. Foot of Crested Lapwing, Vanellus cristatus, - - 68

9. Head of Grey Plover, Pluvialis Squatarola, - - 86

10. Head of Golden Plover, Pluvialis aurca, - - - 94

11. Head of Common Eing-Plover, Charadrius Hiaticula, - 116

12. Head of Crested Lapwing, VancUus cristatus. Reduced one-half, 133

13. Head of Collared Turnstone, Strepsilas Interpres, - - 143

14. Head of Pied Oyster-catcher, Ha>matopus Ostralegus. Reduced

one-third, - - - - - 152

15. Wing of Dunlin, Tringa Cinclus, ... 163

16. Head of Common Ruif, Machetes pugnax. Reduced one-third, 171

17. Head of Ash-coloured Sandpiper, Tringa Canutus, - 185

18. Head of Curlew-billed Sandpiper, Tringa subarquata, - 215

19. Head of Common Sanderling, Calidris arenaria - 237

20. Head of Great Curlew, Xumenius Arquata. Reduced one-third, 243

21. Head of Bar-tailed Godwit, Limosa rufa. Reduced one-third, 260

22. Foot of Red-necked Lobe-foot, Lobipcs hyperboreus, - 290

23. Head of Red-necked Lobe-foot, Lobipes hyperboreus, - 291

24. Wing of ^Tiite-breasted Weet-weet, Actitis Hypoleucos. Re-

duced one-fourth, ..... 300

25. Head of Avoset, Recurvirostra Avocetta. Reduced one-half, 306

26. Head of Black-winged Stilt-shank. Himantopus mclaixopterus.

Reduced one-fourth, - - - - 312

xxviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE FIGURES.

Fig. 27. Head of Green-legged Long-shank, Glottis Chloropus. Reduced

one-fonrtli, .... page 319

28. Head of Common Eed-shank Tatler, Totanus Calidris, - 333

29. Head of T\Tute-breasted Wect-weet, Actitis Hypoleucos, - 351

30. Wing of Common Snipe, Scolopax Gallinago, - - 361

31. Head of Common Snipe, Scolopax Gallinago, - - 368

32. Head of Common "Woodcock, Eusticola sylvestris. Reduced one-

third, ..... 386

33. "Wing of Em-opean Bittern, Botaurus stellaris. Reduced three-

fourths, - - - - - - 409

34. Head of European Bittern, Botaurus Stellaris. Reduced one-half, 410

35. Head of Little Bittern, Botaurus minutus. Reduced one-third, 423

36. Head of Grey Night-Heron, Nycticorax Gardeni. Reduced one-

half, ..... 433

37. Head of Grey Heron, Ardea cinerea. Reduced five-eighths, - 440

38. Head of Black-billed Egret, Egretta nigrirostris. Reduced two-

thirds, ..... 460

39. Head of Glossy Ibis, Ibis Falcinellus. Reduced one-half, - 493

40. Head of "White Spoonbill, Platalea Leucorodia. Reduced, 503

41. Sternum of Bald Coot, Fulica atra. Reduced one-fourth, 509

42. Sternum of Green-footed Gallinule, Gallinula Chloropus. Re-

duced one-fourth, - - - - 510

43. Sternum of Corn-Crake, Cres pratensis. Reduced one-foui'th, 510

44. Head of Brazilian Jacana, Parra Jacana, - - - 514

45. Foot of Brazilian Jacana, Parra Jacana, - - 515

46. "Wing of Water Rail, Rallus aquations. Reduced one-half, - 519

47. Head of Water Rail, Rallus aquaticus. Reduced one-fourth, 521

48. Head of Corn-Crake, Crex pratensis, - - - 527

49. Head of Spotted Crake, Crex Porzana, - - . 535

50. Wing of Green-footed Gallinule, Gallinula Chloropus. Reduced

one-half, . . - - . 545

51. Foot of Green-footed Gallinule, Gallinula Chloropus. Reduced

one-fourth, ..... 545

52. Head of Green-footed Gallinule, Gallinula Chloropus, - 547

53. Foot of Bald Coot, Fulica atra, - - - - 558

54. Head of Bald Coot, Fulica atra, - - - 560

55. Foot of Cormorant. Reduced one-half, - . . 570

56. Lamellae of Wild Duck's Bill, Anas Boschas, - - 578

57. Head of Thick-billed Grey Goose, Anser ferns. Reduced one-half, 589

58. Head of "White-faced Bemicle Goose, Bernicla leucopsis. Re-

duced one-fourth, .... 622

59. Head of Whooping Swan, Cygnus musicus, - - 659

INTEODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS.

TiiK birds ■svliich now come to be described have not in-
aptly been named Grallatorial ; for, although some are not
remarkable for the elongation of their legs, and several have
those members short, yet by far the greater number present
a form Avhich suggests the idea of their being elevated upon
stilts. But the names of Waders and Littoral, or Shore
Birds, by which they have also been designated, although
applicable to many of them, are not correct in a general
sense, there being among them some which, so far from fre-
quenting Avater, reside in arid wastes, on dry heaths, or culti-
vated fields, and others which are habitually addicted to
SAvimming. Some species are remarkable for their extreme
speed on foot, while, on the other hand, the merelv nuli-
mentary structure of their wings disables them from flying.
Of these birds, the Ostriches and Cassowaries, however, we
have no representatives in Britain. Others run and flv with
equal celerity, manifesting in all their actions the gTcatest
activity. Of these birds, the legs, always slender, are often
extremely elongated, but in many cases of moderate length
or short. The genera Himantopus, Recurvirostra, Nume-
nius. Tetanus, Actitis, and Limosa, afford examples of the
former; while Charadrius, Cursorius, Glarcola, Tringa, and
Strepsilas are of the latter kind. Hails, Gallinules, Coots,
and Jacanas, being peculiarly fitted for making their way
among thick grass, reeds, and sedges, groAving in watery
places, run Avitli great speed, although their tarsi are not

VOL. I. AVATER BIRDS. B

2 IXTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS.

often long, but are less expert at flying, and are with diffi-
culty raised. Others, again, the Herons, Bitterns, and Storks,
having very elongated legs, and very ample Avings, are less
active, many of them searcliing quietly for their prey, or
remaining in a fixed position until it approaches them in
the water.

The food of these birds is various, and their alimentary
canal is correspondingly modified. They mostly swallow the
objects fitted for affording them nourishment entire. Those
Avhich live on worms, insects, small mollusca and Crustacea,
have the mouth and oesophagus narrow, and the stomach
muscular ; while those which prey on fishes, frogs, and other
reptiles, have a dilatable mouth, a very wide oesophagus, and
a membranous stomach. None of them are furnished with a
crop, and none are purely phytophagous, although several
approach in form and habits to the Gallinaceous birds.

If among the Grallatores any birds represent, by analogy
or similitude of structure and habits, the Raptores, it must
be the Herons; among which are some, as the Adjutant
Stork, which differ little in their omnivorous propensities
from the Vultures. These birds differ from the rest in having
the oesophagus much wider, and in form and structure similar
to that of the fish-eating Palmipedes, the stomach in a degree
membranous, like that of the rapacious land birds, without
lateral muscles, or strong epithelium ; the intestine extremely
slender, and the anterior extremity of the large intestine,
or rectum, furnished with a lobe, or sac, but destitute of the
two lateral coeca which occur in most birds of all the families.
They form a group very clearly defined, although not uncon-
nected with others, and, if long logs and wading habits be
peculiarly characteristic of the Grallatores, they are certainly
entitled to typical pre-eminence. But there are various ways
of viewing birds, and analogies are never wanting to support
preconceived theories. Any of the other fiimilies might in
fact be assumed as equally typical. But supposing the Rap-
tores typical of the Aerial Land Birds, the Cantatores of the
Perching Land Birds, and the Divers, Guillemots, and other
allied species of the Natatorial Birds, the Herons seem to be
their analogues among the Grallatorial Birds.

INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 3

It is very remarkable that while the young of some birds
are blind at birth, and remain in the nest until they are fully
fledged, those of other birds have their eyes open, and pre-
sently leave the nest, being able to run about, and having
the instinct of concealing themselves in suitable j)laccs. Of
the former kind are Vultures, I lawks. Owls, Shrikes, Swal-
lows, Flycatchers, Goatsuckers, Thrushes, Woodpeckers,
Finches, Pigeons, — in short, all the Aerial and Terrestrial
Birds, excepting the Gallinaceous families or llasores. Among
the Grallatores, the Herons and Ibises, and some allied
species, alone remain in the nest until fledged ; and among
the Sea Birds, the Pelicans, ('(n-morants, Cirannets, Divers,
Guillemots, Auks, and allied genera. The young birds which
are at once capable of seeing and running are those of the
Pheasants, Grouse, Partridges, and other Rasores ; the Bus-
tards, Cranes, Plovers, Snipes, Rails, Gallinules, — in short, of
all the Grallatores except the Herons and Tantali ; tlie Gulls,
Terns, Albatroses, Petrels, or all the fish-eating swimming
birds, except those which dive or plunge after their prey ;
and lastly, the young of the whole tribe of Swans and Ducks.
Now, here are two series distinct from each other, and we
have in the fact a principle of arrangement, to which little
attention has been paid, although it is Avell fitted for the
purpose. Certainly no two groups having the opposite cha-
racters spoken of can form part of a natural family, and they
who have attempted to unite the powerless-younged Pigeons
with the active-younged Partridges, have failed in showing
that they possess common characters. Yet, as in the other
circimistances which distinguish groups there are various gra-
dations, analogy would lead us to expect the same in this
case ; so that a group, intemicdiate in characters betAveen
two or more groups, may in this respect resemble that to
which it is otherwise least allied.

The mode of nestling, and the form, colouring, and number
of the eggs, have not, perhaps, been sufficiently attended to
in constructing groups. None of the Grallatorial tribes form
very elaborate nests, and most of them merely scrape a cavity,
in which they place a few straws. The Herons and Tantali
construct a large flat nest, either in trees or on the gi'ound.

4 INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS.

The Gallinules and Rails also form, on the gionnd, a very
bulky nest ; but the rest are content with making a shallow
cavity in the sand or gravel, and either lea^dng it unfurnished,
or rudely garnisliing it with twigs, straws, or moss. Yery
many species, those especially of the families of Pluvialinae,
Totaninae, and Scolopacinte, lay four pyriform spotted eggs,
of Avhich the pointed ends meet. Those of the family of
Kails and Gallinules lay from five to ten or more ovate or
oblong spotted eggs, resembling those of various partridges
and grouse. The eggs of the Tantalinac or Ibises are also
oblong and spotted, but fewer. The Herons and birds of
allied genera have from two to four broadly elliptical eggs,
generally of a greenish-blue colour, sometimes white, rarely
spotted.

1 am not aware of a single character common to all the
Grallatorial birds. The same may be said of the Natatorial,
and indeed of the Aerial and Terrestrial groups. Supposing
we look to the bill for characters, we find it excessively long
in the Curlews and Godwits, and shorter than the head in
some Crakes and Sand-Plovers ; conical in Herons, cylin-
drical in Snipes ; extremely robust in Storks, extremely
slender in Stilts and Avocets ; straight, decurved, recurved
in different species ; rigid in some, flexible in others. In
like manner the tibia is bare to a great extent in Storks and
Herons, feathered to the joint in Woodcocks and some Bit-
terns ; the tarsus extremely long in some, short in others ;
the toes very long or very short, three or four in number ;
the claws long and slender, or short and broad. The wings
are very long and very broad, very long and narrow, ex-
tremely diminutive, so as to be incapable of raising the bird
from the ground ; rounded or pointed, spurred, knobbed, or
plain on the carpus. The tail may be short or long, rounded,
wedge-shaped, even, or emarginatc, of ten or twelve feathers.
Every organ differs in the same manner. The tongue is
short, extremely short, or the reverse ; the gullet narrow or
wide ; the stomach membranous or very muscular ; the in-
testine short or excessively long, of moderate width or ex-
tremely narrow; the cara short or long, or wanting altogether.
Then what are these Grallatores, and how are they distin-

INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 5

ji^uished !' There; is no such order in existence, (hcjiijjs of
too <^-eat extent cannot be defined : they are unnatural. All
the definitions ever given of the Grallatores arc incorrect and
inadequate. Take, for example, that of M. Teniminck : —
"Bill of varied form; more frecpiently straight, v(;ry elon-
gated-conical, compressed; seld(nn fiat or depressed. Feet
slender, long, more or less bare above the knee ; three toe.s
before and one behind, the hind toe articulated at the level
of the fore toes, or higher." The systematic Ornithology
which tolerates formula! so vague as this stands much in
need of a reform-bill.

Instead of adopting a single order of Grallatores, 1 arrange
the birds so called by authors into four distinct order.s — Cur-
sores, Tentatores, Ancupatores, and Latitores. The species
of tlie.se orders that reside in or visit a small portion of
the globe, so limited and insulated as Britain, are not so
numerous as to represent all the genera. Some even of the
larger groups are entirely wanting with us. Yet the number
is by no means inconsiderable, as it amounts to about
seventy species, the forms and habits of Avhich will afford
amj)lc materials for a volume. With many of these birds in
the li-s ing state I am personally unacquainted, they being of
very rare occurrence with us ; but of others I have studit d
the habits under very favourable circumstances, and with not
a little ardour.

As in the other volumes, I present short distinctive cha-
racters of the gToups to be described, to enable the student
to refer a bird which he may obtain to its order in the
system. Immediately following the general account of each
family will be found a synopsis of the genera and species,
intended for a similar use.

HISTOllY

B 11 I T I S II B I 11 D S

IXDIGEXOUS AND MIGRATORY.

XIII. CUESORES. RUNXERS.

XIV. TENTATORES. PROBERS.
XV. AUCUrATORES. STALKERS.

XVI. LATITORES. SKULKERS.

ESSENTIAL CIlAPtA^'TKRS OE THE ORDERS.

ORDER XIII. CURSORES. RUNNERS.

Bill of moderate length, rather stout, straight or nearly
so, conipressed toward the end, openhig to l)encuth the eyes,
and having the nasal sinuses large. Mouth rather wide.
Tongue fleshy, tapering, pointed. (Esophagus of moderate
width ; proventriculus hulhifonu ; stomach with strong lateral
muscles, dense and rugous epithelium ; intestine of moderate
length and width, with large or moderate coeca. Legs gene-
rally long, and slender ; tibia hare to a great extent ; tarsus
long, generally reticulate all round, but sometimes anteriorly
scutellate ; toes short or moderate, thickish, flattened beneath,
the anterior spreading, and webbed at the base ; the liind
(oe wanting, or small and elevated; claws short, obtuse.
Plumage moderately developed, the feathers with a large
plumule ; wings slightly developed in one family, but usually
large, generally pointed, though varying in form; tail short.

ORDER XIV. TENTATORES. PROBERS.

Bill longer than the head, very slender, someAvhat cylin-
drical, generally flexible and elastic. Mouth very narrow.
Tongue slender, triangular, tapering to a point. (Esophagus
narrow ; proventriculus oblong, or bulbifonn ; stomach
roundish, elliptical, or oblong, with strong lateral muscles,

10 CHARACTERS OF THE ORDERS.

large tendinous spaces, and dense, hard, longitudinally ru-
gous epithelium ; intestine of moderate length, rather narrow ;
ccBca rather long, cylinckical, or oblong. Legs long or mode-
rate, slender ; the tibia bare to a gi'eat extent, but sometimes
feathered to the joint ; tarsus slender, generally scutellate ;
toes of moderate length, slender, the anterior "vvcbbed at the
base, the hind toe very small and elevated, or wanting ; claws
small, compressed, arcuate, mostly rather acute. Plumage
generally soft, on the upper parts somewhat compact, the
feathers with a rather large downy plumule ; Avings long,
acute, the first quill generally the longest ; some of the inner
secondaries much elongated, narrow, and tapering ; tail short.

ORDER XY. AUCUPATORES. STALKERS.

Bill large, generally conical, mostly pointed, sometimes
subcylindrical or flattened at the end. Mouth wade, and
very dilatable. Tongue trigonal, acute. Oesophagus very
wide ; stomach generally a large rounded sac, with the walls
thin, but sometimes moderately muscular, the epithelium
thin, or thick, soft, and rugous ; intestine very long and
narrow^, without coeca in one family, but in the other with
small coecal appendages. Legs long, slender ; tibiae bare to a
large extent ; tarsus mostly scutellate in front ; toes four,
large, the hind toe on the same level as the rest. Plumage
generally lax, the feathers elongated ; wings large and broad ;
tail short.

ORDER XYL LATITORES. SKULKERS.

Bill of moderate length, generally rather short, semetimes
elongated, rather strong, compressed. Mouth narrow. Tongue
slender, trigonal, tapering. Oesophagus of moderate width,
without crop or remarkable dilatation ; proventriculus oblong ;
stomach with very large distinct miiscles, and thick rugous
epitheUum ; intestine of moderate length and width ; coeca
long. Legs of moderate length, stout ; tibia bare to a con-

(HAKACniiS OF THE ORDERS. 11

sidcrable extent ; tarsus large, eompressed, anteriorly seulel-
late ; toes very long, slender, free, the hind toe very small ;
daws generally long, little arched, or straight, eompressed,
acute, riuniage l)l(>nded, hut firm ; wings short, or mode-
rate ; tail very small.

Although the Strutliionina^, or Ostriches, have heen in-
cluded in the ahove ditinition of" the Cursorcs, it is not
certain that they do not helong to the Kasores. Many
authors consider them as forming an order of themselves,
containing only five, — or, if the New Zealand Kivi he in-
cluded,— six species. The other orders are perfectly natural,
insomuch that the student cannot fail to recognise any one of
their memhers, provided he pay due attention to its external
form and diucstivc or<>ans.

XIII. CURSORES. RUXNERS.

TnorGii all the birds which holong to the Grallatorial
series, the Storks and Herons excepted, are remarkable for
their peculiar adaptation for speed of foot, those which seem
to me to constitute the present order are pre-eminent in this
respect. Three natural groups or families, easily distinguish-
able, insomuch that their natural affinity is not very readily
perceived, agree in possessing this character, hoAvever much
they may differ in other circumstances, especially Avith respect
to flight.

The most remarkable of these families, that of the Sfn/-
th{o7iince or Ostriches, in some respects allied to the Rasorial
families, is composed of yery large birds, haAang the neck
and feet elongated, the bill short, the tibia bare beloAv, the
tarsus very strong, the toes short and stout, the hind toe
always, and in one species the second toe, AAanting. The
African Ostrich, Struthio Camelus ; the Indian CassoAAary,
Casuarius Emu ; the American Nandu, Rhea Americana ;
DarAvin's Nandu, Rhea DarAvinii ; the Emeu of Ncav Hol-
land, Dromiceius Novse-Hollandiec, are all the species knoAATii
of this fomily, singular chiefly on account of the merely rudi-
mentary state of the wings, and the corresponding modifi-
cations in the formation of the sternum and clavicles, Beinc:
thus incapable of flying, these birds might perhaps constitute
an order by themselves ; but in that case the Penguins, which
yet to many seem not entitled to such distinction, ought to
be separated from the diving sea-birds. IIoAvever, as none

CURSORES. RUNNERS. 13

of the StruthioninoD occur in Britain, it is unnecessary tliat
they sliould particularly cnj^agc our attention.

The Graincf, or Cranes, large birds of which some resemble
Herons and others Bustards, are furni.shed -with large and broad
Avings, elongated legs, with rather short, stout anterior toes,
and a diminutive elevated hind toe. Only a single s])ecies
comes under our notice, formerly not uncommon, but now
scarcely ever met with.

The Otiucc, or Bustards, which are in some respects allied
to the Strutliionina), and to the Perdicinnc or Partridges, as
well as to the Pluvialina? or Plovers, are large, or of mode-
rate size, with ample, rather concave, somewhat rounded
wings, and have a correspondingly vigorous flight, although
in ordinary circumstances most of them make little use of it.
Of this family four species occur in Britain, all of them very
rare. The general characters of the Cursores seem to be
somewhat as follows : —

The body is ovate, somewhat compressed, large or mode-
rate ; the neck very variable in length ; the head rather
small, ovate, rounded above ; the bill of moderate length,
straight or nearly so, compressed towards the end, with the
point of the upper mandible somewhat declinate and obtuse,
the nasal sinus large. The ton^e is of moderate length, taper-
ing, acute ; the oesophagus of moderate Avidth, with the walls
thick ; the proventriculus bulbiform, that is, not wdder than
the rest of the oesophagus, but having a belt of large glan-
dules which gives it a greater breadth ; the stomach a mus-
cular gizzard, with strong lateral muscles; the epithelium
dense and rugous ; the intestine of moderate length and
width ; with two moderate, or rather large, nearly cylindrical
coeca. The tibite are bare to a great extent ; the tarsi long,
reticulate all round, in a few instances scutellate anteriorly ;
the toes short or moderate, thickish, flattened beneath, the
anterior spreading, the outer two more or less Avebbed at the
base ; the claAvs short and obtuse. Number in this, as in
many other instances, affords no character ; for, not to men-
tion the Ostrich, Avhich has only the third and fourth toes,
as is shown by theu* position, and the number of joints, wliile
some have three toes only, the first or hind toe being wanting.

14 CURSORES. RUNXERS.

many have also a hind toe, which however is always small,
and more or less elevated, so as scarcely to touch the ground.
The plumage is moderate, the feathers having a large plu-
mule, Aarpng generally from a third to a half of their length,
but in the Ostrich gi'oup so large that the feathers might be
described as double. The Avings and tail vary, as in every
large gi-oup.

All the species feed on insects and Avorms, and occa-
sionally on vegetable substances, their* digestive organs being
adapted for both sorts of food. They nestle on the gi-ound;
laying fi-om three to five eggs. Tlic males are larger than
the females, and sometimes differently coloured, at least in
part. The general moult takes place in autumn, the partial
moult in spring. Many of the species are migratory, those
which in summer reside in the colder or temperate regions
moving southward in autumn.

gruin.t:.

CRAXES AND ALLIED SPECIES.

The birds of -wluch this family is composed are of large
size, slender form, and elej^aiit proportions. They have some
external resemblance to Herons ; but their structure, espe-
cially that of their digestive organs, their general habits, and
food, indicate little affinity to those birds, and show that
they claim a much closer alliance to the Ostriches on the one
hand, and the Plovers on the other. They may be briefly
characterized — their extreme scarcity Avith us rendering it
inexpedient to present an extended description — as having
the body large and compressed; the neck long and slender;
the head rather small and oblong ; the bill about the length
of the head, straight, depressed at the base, compressed toward
the end, the nasal sinuses extending to half its length, the
tip rather obtuse ; the nostrils subbasal, lateral, oblong, or
roundish. The legs arc long and slender ; the tibiae bare
at the loAver part ; the tarsus somewhat compressed, ante-
riorly scutellate ; the toes rather long, the hind toe short and
somewhat elevated ; the claws obtuse. The phunage is full,
and rather compact ; most of the species are ornamented Avith
elongated plumes on the fore part of the neck, or the hind
part of the back ; the wings are broad and convex, the inner
secondaries elongated and decurved ; the tail generallv short
and rounded.

These stately and handsome birds are chiefly inhabitants
of Avarm climates, but some of them perform long migrations.
They feed on insects, mollusca, reptiles, seeds, and other

16 GRUm^. CRANES, &c.

vegetable productions. They nestle on the ground, and lay
few eggs. The young, unlike those of the Herons, are active
from the first.

SYI^OPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES.

GEXVS I. CiRUS. CRANE.

Bill longer than the head, stout, straight, tapering, com-
pressed, obtusely pointed. Tarsus very long, slender, with
numerous curved, anterior scutella ; toes rather short. Wings
very large, the inner secondaries much elongated, and curved
downwards ; tail short, rounded, of twelve feathers.

1. Grifs cuierca, Grey Crane. Fore part of the head
and loral spaces bare, bluish black ; crown bare, bright red ;
plumage ash-grey ; a band of dull white from the eye doAvn
the side of the neck.

GRUS. CRANE.

Ox account of their large size, the elongation of their
tibiir and tarsi, and the straight, tapering, compressed form
of their hill, the Cranes have hy most authors been associated
with the Herons, uhich they further resemhle in their general
aspect. But they differ from these birds in several essential
respects, as "will presently be shown. The body is large,
ovate, and little compressed; the neck very long and of
moderate thickness ; the head ovate, and much rounded
above.

Bill much longer than the head, stout, straight, tapering,
compressed, pointed ; upper mandible with the dorsal line
straight, until near the end, when it is convexo-declinate,
the ridge rather broad and nearly flat for about two-thirds of
its length, then convex, the sides sloping, the edges strong,
sharp, straight, notchless, the tip narrowed, thin-edged,
rather obtuse ; nasal groove large, half the length of the bill,
filled by a bare membrane, with a deep broad gioove at its
fore part ; lower mandible with the angle very narrow and
extending to the middle, the dorsal line ascending, almost
straight, the sides of the crura concave, the ridge rounded,
the sides toward the end convex, the edges sharp and strong,
the tip narrow, thin-edged, rather obtuse ; gape-line straight,
commencing opposite the base of the ridge, and much ante-
rior to the eyes.

Mouth very narroAv, altogether unlike that of the Herons ;
palate convex, with three longitudinal anterior series of
strong, compressed, horny papilla", those of the middle ridge
largest ; upper mandible internally moderately concave, with
a prominent median line ; lower mandible more deeply con-

18 GRUS. CRANE.

cave, -vvith two ridges on each side. Tongue rather long,
emarginate and papillate at the base, trigonal, acute ; oeso-
phagus rather narrow ; stomach a very strong gizzard, having
powerful lateral muscles, and a dense rugous epithelium;
intestine of moderate length, rather narrow ; tMo oblong
coeca. Trachea moderately flattened, curved and entering a
cavity in the sternum, whence it is reflected before passing
into the thorax ; bronchi A^ide.

Nostrils linear, direct, in the fore part of the nasal groove.
Eyes of moderate size, eyelids bare. Aperture of ear small,
roundish. Feet very long ; tibia bare for about a fourth of
its length, covered all round with hexagonal scales ; tarsus
very long, slender, moderately compressed, with numerous
broad, curved scutella before, small elongated hexagonal scales
on the sides, and larger scales behind ; toes four ; the first
very small, and elevated ; the anterior toes rather short, stout,
scutellate above, papillate and somewhat flattened beneath ;
the second a little shorter than the fourth, Avhicli is connected
Avith the third by a short basal web. Claws short, decui'ved,
little compressed, rather obtuse, the third with an inner thin
entire edge.

The gi'cater part of the head bare, or sparsely covered
with haii'-like feathers. Plumage in general soft, but imbri-
cated; the feathers with moderate doAvn-plumules ; those of
the neck small, oblong ; of the body broad and abruptly
rounded, of the hind part of the back oblong. Wings very
long and ample, Avith about thirty-five quills ; primaries
decurved, strong, attenuated on the inner web ; tlie third
longest, but scarcely exceeding the second and fourth, and
very little longer than the first ; the inner secondaries longer
than the primaries when tlic Aving is closed, curved outAvards,
and AA'ith their filaments loose tOAvard the end ; some of the
secondary coverts similarly decomposed. Tail short, rounded,
of tAvelve feathers.

The Cranes are migi'atory birds, Avhich breed in tlie
northern regions of both continents, and betake themselves
to the temperate or Avarm climates in winter. They live in
flocks, run Avith great celerity, and have a rapid and ex-
tended fliglit. When migrating tliev advance in lines, — con-

GRUS. CRANE. 19

tinuous, an<;ular, ov uiidiilatcd. Their cry is a loud clear
trumpet-like sound. They frequent marshy plains, the mar-
gins of lakes and rivers, as well as fields and dry wastes ;
feeding chiefly on Tcgetable substances, but occasionally also
on insects and reptiles. Although they bear some consider-
able resemblance to the Herons and Storks, they are clearly
not of that family, but more allied to the JJustards and
Plovi rs ; their very muscular stomach and double coeca being
sufficient to separate them from the former l)irds. liesides,
their young are able to run with great celerity while yet
covered with down. They are said to nestle on the giound,
and to lay two or three eggs.

GRUS CINEREA. THE GREY CRA^'K

COMMON CILVNE.

Fig. I.

Ardea Gnis. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 234,
Ardea Gnis. Lath. Ind. Orn. IL 674.
Crane. Mont. Om. Diet.

Gnic cendree. Grus cincrca. Temm. Man. d'Orn. IL 567.
Grns cinerca. Common Crane. Flem. Brit. Anim. 97.
Common Crane. Grus cinerca. Sclb. Illust. Brit. Oniith. IL 4-
Grtis cinerca. Common Crane. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 18o.
Grus cinerca. Bonap. Comp. List of Eur. and Aracr. Birds, 46.

Upper part of iho head and loral spaces hare, or uparsrhj
covered with hhich hairs; hill f/recuisli-hlaeh, (jrcyisJi-yelJow
toward the end ; phimaije asJi-greij ; fore part of neck and a
trianyuJar jmtch on the nape dark grey ; prijnari/ quills
greenish -llach.

Male. — The Grey Crane, Avhich is nearly as lar^c as the
White Stork, has the hody ovate, litth^ coiu})resse(l ; the nec-k
very lonii;,hut ofnioderate thickness; the head ovate, and mucli

GREY CRANE. 21

roimdod above. Tlie bill is nearly twice as lonf>- as the head,
rather stout, straight, much compressed, tai)ering to a rather
obtuse point; the upper mandible with the ridge rather broad
and fiat, the nasal sinus large, of great length, and filled by
u bare membrane ; the lower mandible with the angle ex-
tending as far as the middle and very naiTow, the ridge
convex ; the edges of both sharp but strong, and the tips
narrowed but rather thin-edged and somewhat obtuse. The
ga})e-line, which is straight, commences far before the eyes ;
and the mouth is narrow, measuring scarcely an inch across.

The nostrils are linear, ten-twelfths of an inch long, near
the middle of tlie bill, in the fore part of the nasal meml)rane.
The eyes are of moderate size, or rather small, their aperture
being eight-twelfths. The opening of the ear is very small,
being only a (piarter of an inch in diameter. The feet are
very long, and slender, but strong. The tibia, which is
covered Avith hexagonal scales, is bare for three inches and a
half; the tarsus is covered behind and on the sides with
scales, but anteriorly with forty broad decurved scutella.
The first or liind toe is very small, a little elevated, with
twelve scutella ; the second with twenty-two, the third
thirty-eight, the fourth twenty-eight ; the second toe a little
shorter than the fourth, but with its claw longer. The claws
are small, conical, decurved, little compressed, acute ; the first
smallest, the third largest, and with a dilated inner edge.

The forehead and loral spaces are thinly covered \viih.
blackish hairs ; the upper part of tlie head also bare, papil-
late behind, and A\ith some blackish hairs. On the nape the
feathers are pointed, on the cheeks and throat linear, on the
neck oblong, gradually enlarging downwards ; on the body-
broad, naiTOwer on the hind part of the back. The A\-ings
are very long and of great breadth ; tlie third quill longest,
the second and fourth scarcely shorter, the first an inch
shorter; the outer primaries decurved, nanowed, and pointed ;
the secondaries very broad, some of the inner curved out-
wards, loose at the margin, and exceeding the primaries,
when the wiiv^ is closed, by about four inches ; some of the
inner secondary coverts are also curved and decomposed.
The tail is short, and rounded.

22 GRUS CINEREA.

Tlio bill is greenisli-black, tinged Avith red at the base,
and mth more than an inch of the tips greyish-yellow, or
liorn-coloiir. The bare skin on the head is red, the iris
brownish-red, the feet and claws black. The general colonr
of the plnmage is light ash-grey j a triangnlar elongated
patch on the neck very dark grey ; the Avhole fore part
blackish-grey. The alula and primary qiulls, with their
coverts, are gi-eyish-black, with brown shafts ; the secondaries
of the general grey colour, tinged with dusky at the end,
and white at the base, as are their coverts. The tail-feathers
are similar to the secondaries, and, like them, have the shafts
white.

Length to end of tail 46 inches ; bill along the ridge 4;^ ;
Aving from flexure 2\ ; tarsus 9^; third toe o ; its claAv oh

Female. — The female is similar to the male, but smaller.

Habits. No specimen of this bird having been obtained
in any part of the country in which I have resided, I have
been obliged to take my descriptions from preserved skins.
Its habits, as observed on the Continent, are as follows : —
"About the end of spring, the Cranes are seen advancing
northward, in flocks, arranged in lines or triangles, although,
as they frequently fly by night, their passage is only known
by the loud clear cries which they emit at intervals. They
generally keep at a gi-eat height, fly in a sedate manner,
alight in the temperate parts of Europe only to feed or rest
for a short time, and proceed to the most northern regions,
Avhere they pass the summer. Although they ascend to a
great elevation, and sustain a very extended flight, they do
not rise from the ground without some difliculty, but run
a few steps, unfolding their wings, before they take their
spring. They fly in bands, and observe a regular order ;
form a triangle in the air when the atmosphere is tranquil ;
k( ep close together Avhen the wind is violent or contrary ;
and arrange themselves in a circle to struggle against the
tempest. It is usually by night that they travel. One of
them, Avho may be regarded as the leader, frequently emits a
loud cry, which is repeated by all the rest. When they have

GRKY CllANi:. 23

ali<Tlit('(l, whether for food or for skup, one of them acts as
sentinel, takes note of what is fi^oing on, and j^ives warniiitj;
by a cry the ])urpos(> of wliicli is understood by liis com-
panions, the wh()h> tiock takini;- to Hii^lit shouhl tliere he
apparent danger. Tliey nestle in tlie h)W grounds and
marshes of tlie nortliern tracts, and hiy only two e;ifjfs. The
youn<^, it is said, while yet unfiedi^cd, can run with such
speed that a man cannot overtake them, and they are fed by
their parents until they have gTown u]), and are able to fly."
— Vaf/nont lionidre.

The flesh of this bird is said to be finn and tough,
although it was held in estimation by the Romans, "who
fattened it in their aviaries after putting out its ey(>s. In
England, where the species "was formerly abundant in the
fen districts, its flesh appears to have been much esteemed.
Although Cranes are said to have formerly bred in the fens,
they are now of extremely rare occurrence in England, not
so many as half-a-dozen individuals being recorded as having
been killed there within these forty years. Dr. Fleming, in
his History of British Animals, records its occurrence in
Shetland: — "A small flock appeared, during harvest, in
1807, in Ting^vall, Zetland, as I was infoiTned by the Rev.
John Turnbull, the worthy minister of the parish, who added
that they fed on grain." Mr. J. Wolley gives an account of
one that frequented Shetland for several months in the
summer and autumn of 1848, and states that several years
previously one was shot in South Ronaldsha, one of the
Orkneys. Mr. Dunn, in his Ornithologists' Guide to Orkney
and Shethind, says : — " This bird is an occasional -snsitor in
severe winters or stonny weather ; two examples were shot
in Shetland in the interval between my first and second
visits— 18.31 and 1833."

Young. — According to M. Temminck, " the young, before
their second autumnal moult, have no bare space on the top
of the head, or rather have it scarcely perceptible. The
blackish-grey colour of the fore part of the neck and the
nape does not exist, or is merely indicated by longitudinal
spots."

24 GRUS CINEREA.

Remarks. — Perhaps the nearest approach to the hill of
the Crane is to he seen in that of the Turnstone, which
might he described ahnost in the same terms, but, of course,
presents differences. It is also constructed similarly to that
of ffidicnemus, Chavadrius, and other genera of the same
group, to which its affinity is further indicated by the narrow-
ness of the throat. However much the Cranes may seem to
resemble Herons, on account of their large size, and, in some
degi"ee, their colours, they are in reality more alhed to the
Ostriches or the Plovers. The account given by Mr. Audubon
of the American Crane confirms this opinion. It often, he
says, digs in the dried mud for the large roots of the water-
lily ; in winter resorts to the fields, in which corn, pease, and
sweet potatoes are planted, feeding on the grains and roots ;
and in the wet fields seizes on water insects, toads, and
frogs, but never, he believes, on fishes. Water hzards,
young alligators and snakes, cray-fish, and small quadrupeds
are also eaten by it. In captivity, it becomes gentle, and
feeds freelv on <n'ain and other vegetable substances.

OTIX.E.

BUSTARDS AND ALLIED SPECIES.

Although in some families of birds there is little diver-
sity of si/e, ill others a Patagonian and a Bushman, giant
and dwarf, stand side by side, magnitude not being a measure
of affinity. Some of the Otinse are large and stately birds,
while others scarcely excel a starling or thrush. In external
a])pearance, they seem allied to the Perdicina? and the PluAd-
alina?, having the plumage and colouring of the former, and
somewhat of the form of the latter.

Their body is ovate, large, and not much compressed ; the
neck long, and rather slender ; the head of moderate size, or
rather small, somewhat compressed, and convex or rounded
above. The bill shorter than the head, moderately stout,
nearly straight, or considerably arched, depressed at the base,
compressed toward the end ; the upper mandible Avith the
ridge narrow, the nasal sinuses large, and filled by a mem-
brane, which is feathered at the base, the edges partially
iuflexcd, the tip narrow ; the lower mandible has the angle
long and narrow, the edges sharp and direct, the tip. narrow;
the gape-Une little arched, and commencing before the eyes.
The mouth is of moderate width, or rather narrow ; the
tongue trigonal, fleshy, tapering ; the oesophagus rather
narroAv ; the proventriculus bulbiform ; the stomach with
large muscles and dense epithelium ; the intestine of mode-
rate length and width ; the coeca long and obtuse.

The nostrils are oblong, or linear, direct, shghtly opercu-
late, nearly basal. Eyes rather large. Aperture of ear large.

26 OTIN^.

The legs are long, rather slender; tibia bare to a con-
siderable extent ; tarsus long, reticulated ; toes short, margi-
nate, flattened beneath, with short basal membranes, the
hind toe generallj' wanting; claws short, arched, convex,
obtuse.

The plumage is moderately developed, compact, with
large plumule ; the wings large, pointed ; the tail short, of
twelve or more feathers.

The Otina? inhabit chiefly the desert plains of the Avarmer
parts of the Old Continent. They are as remarkable as the
Ostriches for their great speed of foot, though, having wings
of ample size, they have a correspondingly strong and sus-
tained flight. Most of them feed on vegetable substances,
insects, and other smaller animals. The males are larger
and handsomer than the females. The nests are formed on
the ground ; the eggs are not numerous ; and the young,
covered with dow^l, run from the first.

Four species occur in Britain ; all of them very rare there,
though the Great Bustard was formerly numerous.

SYJS^'OFSIS OF TBE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES.

GENUS I. OTIS. BUSTARD.

Bill shorter than the head, moderately stout, depressed at
the base, compressed toward the end, the tip narrowed, but
obtuse ; the gape-line little arched. Nostrils nearly basal,
linear-oblong, direct; nasal sinuses large, feathered at the
base. Legs long, rather slender ; tarsus reticulated ; toes
three, short, marginal, Avith short basal webs ; claws convex,
obtuse. Wings long, broad, rather pointed, the third quill
longest ; tail short, of more than twelve feathers.

1. Otis Tarda. Great Bustard. Tail of twenty feathers,
male about forty-four inches long.

2. Otis Tetrax. Little Bustard. Tail of sixteen feathers.
Male about eiuhteen inches Ions.

BUSTARDS, &c. 27

OE>'rs II. crusoRiis. corRSKR.

Bill soniewliat shorter tliiiu tlie Ik-ucI, slcudi-r, ratlicr
hroador than liij^li at the base, compressed toward the end ;
the ••■ape-line <;i'ntly arched. Nostrils sub-hasal, ohlon^-, in
tlie fore part of the rather short sinuses. Legs long, slender ;
tarsus anteriorly scutellate ; toes three, short, the outer two
connected by a narrow basal membrane ; claws small, slender,
acute. Wings long, narrow, acute, the first and second
quills about equal ; tail moderate or short, of twelve obtuse
feathers.

1. Cifrson'tfs Europccus. Crcam-coloiirvd Coiirsei'. Pale
brownish-yellow, lighter beneath ; a triangular black spot on
the nape; two bands, a white and a black, from the eye to
the occiput.

GEXrS III. GLAREOLA. PRATINCOLE.

Bill short, moderately stout, broader than high at the
base, compressed toward the end ; the gape-line considerably
arched. Nostrils basal, oblong, oblique. Legs of moderate
length, very slender; tarsus reticulated; hind toe very small;
lateral toes very short, the middle toe much longer, and con-
nected with the outer by a basal membrane ; claws slender,
compressed, acute, that of the middle toe very long. Wings
very long, narrow, acuminate ; tail rather long, forked, of
twelve feathers.

L Glareola Pratincola. Collared Pratincole. Tail deeply
forked ; wings very long ; upper parts greyish-brown, tail-
coverts white ; throat pale reddish-yellow, margined Avith
two bands, the inner white, the outer black.

OTIS. BUSTAHD.

The Bustards may be said to be in external appearance
intermediate between the Partrid<:;es and Plovers. They
look like Gallinaceous birds of which the legs are elongated,
the toes shortened and reduced to three. Their body is
ovate, large, little compressed; the neck long and rather
slender ; the head of moderate size, ovate, somewhat com-
pressed.

Bill shorter than the head, moderately stout, or rather
slender, nearly straight, broader than high at the base, com-
pressed toward the end ; upper mandible Avith the dorsal line
straight for half its length, then declinate and convex, the
ridge narrow to beyond the nostrils, the nasal sinus large,
and filled by a membrane, which is feathered at the base,
the edges sharp, inflected for half their length, then direct,
the tip narrowed but blunt ; lower mandible with the angle
long and narrow, the dorsal line slightly ascending and
nearly straight, the sides of the crura sloping a little outwards
and nearly flat, the edges sharp and direct, the tip narrow
but blunt ; the gape-line little arched.

Upper mandible internally with three prominent lines,
lower more deeply concave. Nostrils linear or oblong, direct,
slightly operculate, nearly basal. Eyes rather large. Aper-
ture of ear of moderate size. Feet long and rather slender ;
tibia bare for a third of its length, covered all round Avitli
oblong scales ; tarsus long, reticulated Avith oblong, sub-
hexagonal scales ; toes three, short, scutellate above, margi-
nate, flattened beneath, spreading, with short basal webs.
Claws short, depressed, convex, arched, thin-edged, obtuse.

Plumage moderate, compact ; feathers narrow on the head

OTIS. BUSTAllJ). 29

and neck, ovato on the body. AVings lonfj, hroad, ratlicr
pointed; t\\v third (jnill lon<;vst, tlic second little shorter, tlie
first as lon<T as the fifth ; the outer quills narrowed toward
the end. Tail short, of more than tw(dve fcatliers.

It is difficult to decide as to the inecise position of the
Bustards. Some authors refer them to the llasores, others
to the Grallatores ; and it is obvious enough that in some
})oints they resemble both groups. Their internal structure
alone can settle the question ; and as I have liad no oppor-
tunity of making myself acquainted with it, I must leave the
Bustards as I have found them.

Although furnished with large Avings, these birds on
ordinary occasions make little use of them ; yet their flight
is strong and sustained. They run -with great speed, squat
on the ground to avoid their enemies ; feed on vegetable
substances, worms, and insects ; form a slight and rude nest
among the herbage, and lay from three to five or more
spotted eggs.

OTIS TARDA. THE GREAT BUSTARD.

Otis Tarda. Linn. Syst. Xat. I. 264.

Otis Tarda. Lath. Ind. Ornith. IL 658.

Great Bustard. Mont. Ornith. Diut. and Supplt.

Outarde barbue. Otis Tarda. Temm. Man. d' Ornith. II. 506.

Otis Tarda. Great Bustard. Flem. Brit. Anim. 115.

Great Bustard. Otis Tarda. Selby, Illustr. Brit. Ornith. I. 442.

Otis Tarda. Great Bustard. Jenyns, Brit. Vert. Anim. 174.

Otis Tarda. Bonap. Comp. List, 44.

Male about furty-six inches long ; in summer witli a tuft
of slender elongated feathers directed backwards on each side
of the throat ; the head, neck, part of the breast, secotidary
and some of the smaller wing-coverts bluish-grey ; a longi-
tudinal black band on the head ; iipper parts reddish-yellow,
spotted and barred tcith black; tail white at the base, then
light yellou-ish-red, with two black bands; lower parts of the
body tchite, Female ivith the grey of the head and neck
darker; the dark band on the head lighter, the gular tufts
■wanting, otherwise colotired like the male.

^NIat.e in Summer. — This species, which is the hirgest of
()\ir indigenous birds, sometimes, according to Montagu,
■weighing as much as thirty pomuls, has the body very hirge
and fvill, tlie neck ratlier long and of moderate tliickness ;
tlie liead ovate, somewhat compressed, and considerably
rounded above. The peculiarities of its internal structiire I
am unable to describe, not having had an opportunity of
examining a recent specimen. It is said, however, to have a
large subcutaneous gular pouch, comnniuicating with the
throat, and supposed by some to be inflated with air, while

GREAT BUSTARD. 31

others think it is iiiten(U'cl for currying water. On each
side of the throat, and extending upwards in the direction
of the ear, is a hare space of a hbiisli-hhick colour. Tlie
l)ill is short, stout, nearly straight, rather broader than high
at tlie base, compressed toward the end; the upper mandible
with the dorsal line straight for nearly half its length, toward
the end convex, the nasal sinus large and feathered ; the
edges sharp, din>ct, witli a slight sinus close to the rather
obtuse tip; the lower nian(lil)le with the angle rather long
and of moderate width, the dorsal line ascending and slightly
convex, the sides nearly erect, the edges direct, the tij) nar-
rowed but rather blunt ; the gape-line slightly sinuate and
arched.

The nostrils are large, oblong, in the lower and fore part
of the sinus. The eyes rather large. The aperture of the
ear rather large. The legs are rather long, and slender ; the
tibia bare for about two inches ; the tarsus somewhat com-
])ressed, covered all round with hexagonal scales, of which
the anterior are larger; the toes very short, thick, three, the
inner considerably shorter than the outer, all marginate, flat-
tened beneath, connected by basal membranes, of which the
outer is larger ; the middle toe with twenty scutella; the rest
scaly at the base, scutellate toward the end. The claws arc
short, strong, convex, decurvcd, obtuse.

The plumage is full and compact ; the feathers on the
head and neck oblong, rather short ; those on the upper
parts ovate, with large plumules. On each side of the throat,
at the base of the bill, is a tuft of stiffish feathers with dis-
united tilaments, directed backwards and downwards, and
about si.x inches in length. The wings are of moderate
length and breadth, concave, Avith thirty quills ; the pri-
maries stiif, decurvcd, narrow ; the third longest, the second
half-an-inch shorter, and exceeding the first by an inch ; the
secondaries broad and rounded ; some of the inner narrowed
and elongated. The tail is short, rounded, of twenty rather
firm, broad, rounded feathers.

The bill is pale yellowish-brown, darker on the ridge.
The iris hazel ; the feet light brown, as are the claws. The
head and upper neck all round are light greyish-blue. On

132 OTIS TARDA.

the upper part of the head is a h)n<i-itudinal brown band.
The elongated niystaehial feathers white. The h)'\ver part of
the nock anteriorly is pale yellowish-red ; the fore part of
the breast pale greyish-blue, fading into white, of which
colour are the other lower parts, excepting the sides of the
lower neck and body, which are light yellowish-red barred
with black, each feather having two subterminal imequal
bars, and generally several spots. The tail feathers are
similar, but tipi)ed with white, and having the base of that
colour. The outer wing-coverts, secondary co^'erts, and inner
secondary qiiills are white, the former tinged Avith grey ; the
primary quills brownish-black, Avitli the shafts white.
Length to end of tail from 40 to 48 inches.

Female in Svmmer. — The female is much inferior in size
to the male, generally weighing only ten or twelve pounds.
There are no elongated feathers on the sides of the head.
The bare parts are coloured as in the male. The upper part
of the head is yellowish-red, barred with black ; the fore neck
greyish-blue, without any red at its lower part ; the colouring
of the other parts as in the male ; but the black markings on
the back and tail more numerous.

Length to end of tail about So inches.

Habits. — The Great Bustard, which is said to have been
numerous on the heaths and downs of the southern and
eastern parts of England, is now so rare that years pass
without the occurrence of one being noticed. Formerly it
appears to have been a common object of sport, and to have
been hunted with greyhoinids ; one might think only Avlien
moulting, for it might be judged from the size of its wings
that it is capable of a much longer flight than would suffice
to withdraAv it from any danger to be a])prehended from dogs.
But a Frencli author informs us tliat " when the Bustard is
chased it runs Avith great s])eed, flapping its wings, and
sonu^times goes several miles at onc-e without stopi)ing ; but
as it rises on wing with dilHculty, and only when aided by a
favourable wind, and besides never perches, nor indeed can
do so, whether on account of its weight or of its wanting the

GREAT BUSTAllI). :}»

liiiul toi', Avith ^v]li(•ll it niij^lit grasj) tlic branch and koep
itself tlu'ic, it lias every thing to fear, and the doj^s can start
it, and even sometimes seize it when it is not far i'rom the
ground." It being now so rare in England, it does not
appear that any ornithologist has had an opportvmity of ob-
serving its habits there, so as to present a continuous account
of them. I have not so much as seen an individual alive,
and therefore all I can do is to compile from the notices
given in various works a short history, for tlie accuracy of
wliich I cannot be held responsible.

In France and Germany, where Bustards are numerous,
they reside on the heaths and plains, as well as in large cul-
tivated fields, after the breeding season fi^rming at first small
Hocks, and afterwards larger. In April tlu'y pair and dis-
])erse, some alleging that they are polygamous, while others
merely state that after incubation has conmienced the males
desert the females. As all seem agreed on this latter point,
there can be no truth in the supposition that the gular sac of
the male is intended for the purpose of furnishing the female
and young, in the breeding season, with water, which, in
general, is only to be procured at a distance upon the dry
and extended downs they inhabit. Indeed, Bewick states
that one which was kept in a caravan never drank. Being
extremely timid, they cannot be apj)roached without much
j)ains, but are taken with snares, sometimes by means of
dogs and hawks, or shot by persons di-essed in the guise of
horses or cows. They feed on gi-een vegetable substances,
seeds, roots, insects, reptiles, and even small quadrupeds and
young birds, using a quantity of pebbles or gravel to aid
digestion. The male pavs court to the female bv struttin"-
and expanding his tail, like a Turkey, and inflating the skin
of his throat, which assumes a purple tint. The nest is a
hollow in the gi'ound, in an open part, or among com. The
eggs, two in number, are nearly three inches in length, two
inches and two-twelfths in breadth, of an ovate-elliptical
form, pale olive-brown, blotched with gTevish-broMii. They
are deposited in the end of May or beginning of .June, and
are hatched in about thirty days. The young, at first covered
with greyish-yellow down, spotted above and on the sides

34 OTIS TARDA.

with black, prcsontly leave the nest, and accompany their
mother. When tliey are fledged, the dift'erent families unite
into flocks, and are joined by the males. It docs not appear
that this species is migratory, as it occurs in Germany and
France, and has been seen in England, during winter ; but
in time of snow it leaves the open giounds, and betakes itself
to the cultivated fields, where, attracting notice by its great
size, it is more liable to be surprised and shot. Its flesh is
held in great estimation on the Continent, where it is often
exposed for sale in the markets. It occurs in Spain, Italy,
and all the south-eastern parts of Europe ; but its distri-
bution in Asia and Africa has not been traced.

The extensive plains of Wiltshire, on which liustards
were foniierly numerous, seem to have latterly been entirely
deserted by them ; and the county of Norfolk appears to be
the only district in Avhich they now permanently reside,
although in greatly diminished numbers. In Sussex, Cam-
bridgeshire, and Lincolnshire they are also now and then
met with. In the Yorkshire Avoids, Avhich they used to fre-
quent in considerable numbers, none, I believe, have been
seen for several years. The only district in Scotland where
it has been recently seen is the low tract in Morayshire
between Elgin and the sea. As it is not permanently resi-
dent there, it must come from a great distance, so that its
powers of flight must be considerable. According to the
Rev. Mr. Gordon, in his Fauna of Moray, "one was shot
near Oakenhead, in 1803, by the late William Young, Esq.,
of Jiurghead ; another Avas taken a few years ago at Inch-
broom, by Charles Barclay, Esq."

OTIS TETRAX. THE EITTLE BUSTARD.

Otis Tetrax. Llan. Syst. Nat. I. 264.

Otis Tetrax. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 6o9.

Little Bustard. Mout. Orn. Diet.

Outarde Cuncpctiere. Otis Tetrax. Temni. ]M:in. d'Orn. II. 50'

Otis Tetrax. Flem. Brit. Anim. 11.5.

Little Bastard. Otis Tetrax. Selb. Illustr. Brit. Ornith. I. 447.

Otis Tetrax. Little Bustard. Jen. Brit. Vert. -Vn. 17-5.

Otis Tetrax. Bonap. Comp. List. 14.

Male about eighteen inches long ; in summer icifh the
vppcr part of the head and the nape pale reddish-yellow
variegated irith brotvnish-black, throat aiid sides of the head
light grcgish-bhic, a narrow ring of white on the neck, suc-
ceeded by a broad collar of black, below which anteriorly are
a half ring of white and afiother of black ; upper parts pale
reddish-yellow, transversely undidated with black; edge of
the wing, alula, outer secondary coverts, basal p>art and tips
(f the quills and tail feathers, together with all the lower
parts of the body, ichite. Female with the head, neck, upper

36 OTIS TETKAX.

parts and sides pale reddish-ijeUow, streaked and tindidated
with bruirnish-blacJi, throat white, the other parts as in the
tna/e. In winter the male resembles the female.

Male ix Simmer. — The Little Bu.staid may be said to
be nearly equal to the common Pheasant in size, although
vrixh. its parts differently proportioned. The body is ovate
and bulky, the neck rather long and of moderate thickness ;
the head ovate, somewhat compressed, rounded above. The
bill is short, rather stout, nearly straight, rather higher than
broad at the base, compressed toward the end ; the upper
mandible with the dorsal line straightish for a tliird of its
length, then declinate and decui-vcd, the nasal sinus large
and feathered, the sides nearly erect towards the end, the
edges sharp, direct, with a slight sinus close to the small,
rather obtuse tip ; the lower mandible Avitli the angle rather
long and narrow, the dorsal line ascending and very slightly
convex, the sides nearly erect, the edges direct, the tip much
compressed and rather blunt ; the gape-line slightly sinuate
and arched. Upper mandible slightly concave Avithin, lower
very narroAv and deeply concave ; mouth rather narrow.

The legs are of moderate length, and slender ; the tibia
bare for about an inch and reticulated, Avith transverse roAvs
of A'cry small oblong scales ; the tarsus somcAvhat compressed,
covered all round Avith hexagonal scales, of Avliich the ante-
i-ior are larger ; the toes are short, the middle toe AAath its
claAv not being nearly so long as the tarsus ; the inner toe a
little shorter than the outer, Avhich has the basal Aveb larger ;
all the toes rather depressed, marginate, and flat beneath ;
the second or inner Avith ten, the third sixteen, the fourth
Avith only six scutella, but scAeral transverse series of scales.
The claAvs are short, strong, decurved, obtuse, the lateral
moderately comjn-essed, the third Avith a broad thin edge.

The nostrils are linear-oblong, Avith a narrow liorny oper-
culum. The eyes of moderate size, the eyelids feathered on
the margin. The aperture of the ear roundish, and of mode-
rate size.

The plumage is full and compact, though soft ; the
feathers on the head and neck sliortish, oblong ; those on the

LITTLE BUSTARD. 37

f)thor j)arts ovatr, but rather narrow and rounded; the down
phnnule about half tlie lengtli of the feather. The wiuf^s
are of moderate h-nji^tli and breadth, concave, witli about
twenty-six quills ; the primaries .stiff, a little decurved,
narrow ; the third lon<^est, the second two twelfths of an
inch shorter, and exceedinii' the first by ei^ht twelfths ; the
secondaries broad and rounded, some of the iimer somewhat
pointed, and, when the win}^ is closed, only half-an-inch
.shorter than tlw lon<;-est primary. The tail is short, a little
rounded, of sixteen soft, 1)road, rounded feathers.

The bill is brown, <>reyish-blue at the base, with the
r'u\<xc and tips diisky ; the irides reddish-yellow ; feet li<;ht
brownish-grey, scutella of toes darker, claws dusky. The
upper part of the head and the nape are pale reddish-yellow,
thickly varie<;ated with lonj^itudinal and transverse brownish-
black markin<;s ; the sides of the head and the throat to the
ii'u^th (^f two inches greyish-blue, Avith an inferior black
margin, succeeded by a narrow ring of white, that colour
oxteiuling more than an inch downwards in front, in a
pointed form. The middle of the n(x-k, all round, for tlie
length of two inches and a half, is deep black, that colour
being succeeded below by a half collar of white, and another
of black. All the lower parts are white, excepting some
feathers on the fore and lateral parts of the breast, Avhich are
similar to those of the back. The upper parts, including
the back, scapulars, many of the small wing-coverts, with
the inner secondaries and their coverts, may be described as
light reddish-yellow, beautifully undulated transversely with
brownish-black ; the upper tail-coverts wdth white in place
of yelloAv. On the wing is a broad band of white, com-
mencing at the carpal joint, including the alula, eight of the
outer secondary quills and their coverts. The primary quills
and their coverts are white at the base, chocolate broA\n
mixed with grey toward the end, with the tip white ; that
colour becoming gradually more extended on the inner pri-
maries, of which the tenth has only a narrow band of brown
near the end. The tail-feathers are also white at the base
and tip, in the rest of their extent pale yellow, undulated
with black, and having three distinct transverse bands of the

38 OTIS TETRAX.

lattor colour, the lateral feathei-s gTadually bceoming more
white, and losing one <if the black bands.

Length to end of tail 18 inches; bill along the ridge 1,
along the edge of lower mandible I7V, wing from flexure 10 ;
tail 45^ ; bare part of tibia 1 ; tarsus 2^ ; inner toe -j^, its
claw -pV ; middle too l-^, its claw, -^ ; oiiter toe -I4, its
flaw -i-'.

Female. — The female, which is about the same size,
differs in having none of the blue or black so conspicuous on
the neck of the male. The upper part of the head, its sides,
and the neck all round, are pale reddish-yellow, variegated
>\ith dark brown, each feather having a broad median longi-
tudinal band, and several transverse bars. The throat is
yellowish white, the upper parts are variegated as in the
male, but with the markings larger, and many of the feathers
having a large black patch in the middle, toward the end.
The wings and tail as in the male, but with the white less
extended and baned with black. The lower parts are yel-
lowish white, the feathers of the breast and sides with trans-
verse black lines ; the lower tail-coverts with the shafts black,
and some bai"s of the same colour.

Mat,e in Winter. — At the end of autumn the black,
white, and gi'ay feathers on the head and neck are changed
for others variegated with yellow and black ; so that in
winter the male resembles the female, but with the mark-
ings liner.

Haisits. — The Little IJustard is said by various authors
to inhabit the countries bordering the Mediterranean ; to be
common in the southern parts of Euro])e, where it resides all
the year ; but to become rare as we proce(.'d northward, indi-
viduals being very seldom seen beyond the ]3altic. In
Britain, it ranks mcrclv as a straggler, although it has been
killed in England at all seasons. Whctlier migratory or not
with US, it has never been known to breed in the country,
and Mr. Yarrell remarks that males in the sununer ])hnnage,
as above described, have not been met with. In Cornwall,

LITTLE BUSTARD. 39

Devonshiri', and many of tlir eastern districts, individuals
have been obtained. In tlie north of England it becomes
extremely rare, and in Seotland is scarcely ever seen. The
only s[)ecimen obtained there, in so far as I can learn, is a
female which Mr. John Adamson informs me was shot on the
()th of March, 1H40, near St. Andrew's. " It was first seen
among' turnips, on the farm of Hurnside. When raised, it
took a short circular flight, with outstretched neck, like a
duck, and again settled in an adjoining ploughed field, where
it was found with some difficulty as it sat close. It gave a
])((uliar chirping cry on rising. It was in fine condition,
weigliing twenty-eight ounces, and on being prepared was
])laced in the museum of the St. Andrew's Literary and
Philosophical Society."

This species is said to be remarkaldy shy and vigilant, to
run with great celerity, and to fly well, although on ordinary
occasions it seldom rises on wing ; to feed on worms, insects,
herbs, and seeds ; and to nestle among the grass or corn,
laying from three to five glossy gi'cen eggs. Mr. Yarrell
states that they are two inches in length, an inch and a half
in breadth ; the colour of one in his collection, uniform olive-
brown, although he has seen some slightly clouded with
patches of darker brown. The same author informs us that
in a specimen killed at Harwich, " the stomach contained
parts of leaves of the white turnip, lungwort, dandelion, and
a few blades of gTass. The flesh had the appearance and
flavour of that of a young hen Pheasant." Others say it is
dark, but of an exquisite flavour.

In France, where this species is common, it arrives in
April, and departs in September. It is said to be polyga-
mous, the male assuming a station, and attracting the females
by his cries. The eggs are deposited in June, and the young,
which follow their mother like those of a domestic fowl, and
conceal themselves by squatting under the apprehension of
danger, are not able to fly until the middle of August.

CURSOEIUS. COUESEE.

The species, few in luniiber, wliicli constitute this gjeniis,
.ire of small size and slender form, Avith the neck rather
short, tlie head oblong" and little elevated in fi-ont. Bill
somewliat shorter than the head, slender, tapering, nearly
straight or a little arched, a little broader than high at the
base, compressed toward the end ; upjier mandible "vvith the
dorsal line straight for two-thirds of its length, then arcuato-
declinate, the ridge somewhat carinate, the edges sharp, the
tip acnte, without notch ; lower mandible with the angle
long and naiTOw, the dorsal line decurved, the back convex,
the edges sharp, the tip narrow, but rather blunt. Tongue
slender, emarginate and papillate at the base, flattened above,
Avith a medial groove, the tip thin, narroAv, but obtuse.

Nostrils sub-basal, lateral, oblong, in the fore part of the
shortish nasal sinus. Eyes of moderate size. Aperture of
ear rather large. Legs long, slender; tibia bare for a tliird,
scutellate before, and with two rows of scales behind ; tarsus
slender, compressed, anteriorly scutellate. Hind toe wanting ;
anterior toes short, the fourth much longer than the second
or inner, all scvitellate above, the middle and outer connected
by a narrow basal membrane. Claws small, slender, little
arched, acute, that of the third toe with a dilated inner edge.

riumage moderate, soft, and blended ; feathers of the
fore part of the head very short. Wings long, narrow, and
acute ; primaries broad and tapering, the first and second
about equal ; inner secondaries nuich elongati'd. Tail short
or moderate, slightly rounded or even, of twelve obtuse
feathers.

The Coursers arc natives of the warmer regions of the

CURSORirS. COUKSKR. 41

Old Coutiiifut, iiiliabitiii;;- cliicHy the sandy tracts of the
interior. They run witli extreme celerity, and have a rapid
flight ; but their lial)its are little known. It is ])('rha])s
difficult to say wlicther they ouf^ht to he ])laeed witli the
Bustards or Plovers; yet I think they are more allied to iIk;
former, altliough their small size mi^ht lead one to class
them with the latter. A very few iTuiividuals of a sinylo
species have been met with in England.

CURSORIUS EUROP.EUS. THE CREAM-
COLOURED COURSER.

CKEAM-COLOLUKD I'LOVLlt.

Adult icitJt the hill black, the feet yelloicish ; the plumat/e
pale bro!cnish-ycllow, lighter o/i the loicer parts; the fore
part of the head reddish, the hi/id part greij, with a trian-
gular hlacli spot on the nape ; two hands, a white ana a hlac/,\
from the eye to the occiput ; the primaries hlach. Young
icith the upper part of a duller tint, icith undulated angular
transverse dushg lines.

Cursorius europoeus. Lath. Ind. Oniith. II. 7ol.

Cream-coloured Plover. Jlont. Ornith. Diet.

Court-vite isabelle. Cursorius isabcllinus Temm. Man. d'Oniith. II. 513.

Cursorius isabcllinus. Cream-coloured Courser. Flem. IJrit. Anim. 112.

Cream-coloured Swift-foot. Cursorius isabcllinus. Sclby lUust. Brit.

Omith. II. 217.
Cursorius isabcllinus. Cream-coloured Courser. Jenyns. Biit. Vert. Auim.

176.
Cursorius Europicus. Bonap. Comp. I/ist. 4-).

Male. — This species is somewhat infeiior in size to the
Golden Plover, and of a more slender form, having the hody

CREAM-COLOURED COUliSER. 43

rather elongated, tlie neck sliorti.sli, the head of nio:lerato
size, and oblon|^. The hill is rather shorter than the head,
slender, depressed at the hase, eonijjressed toward the end,
considerably areuate, acnte. The feet are long; the tibia
bare to the extent of an ineh, scutellate anteriorly; the tarsus
compressed, with fifteen anterior seutella ; the toes short,
the inner with nine, the second with twenty-six, the third
with twelve seutella ; the outer much longer than the inner,
and connected with the third by a narrow basal membrane.
The claws are small, slender, little arched, acute, that of the
middle toe witli a dilati'd, somewhat notched inner edge.

The wings are nearly as long as the tail when closed,
narrow, and ])ointed ; with the prinuiry ([uills broad, but
tapering, the first and second about equal ; the secondaries
short, slightly incurved, the inner very long. The tail is
short, slightly rounded, of twelve soft, rounded feathers.

The bill is dusky; the feet yellowish. The general
colour of th(> plunuige is light yellowish -brow-n, approaching
to cream-colour ; the lower parts paler, and fading behind
into whitish. The occiput and part of the nape ash-gi-ey,
with the tips of the feathers black ; the fore part of the head
light red. From over the eye to the occiput is a white band,
and below it a band of black. The primary quills are
brownish-black ; the secondaries cream-coloured, with a dusky
patch toward the end, and the tips Avhite ; but the inner
■without dark colour. The lower wing-coverts and axillar
feathers are blackish-brown. The tail is rufous, all the
feathers, except the middle, with a black patch toward the
end, and tipped with white.

Length to end of tail 10 inches; wing from flexure 6f ;
tail 3; bill 1, along the lower mandible 1;^; bare part of
tibia 1 ; tarsus l-J-§- ; inner toe -j^, its claw -j2^ ; middle toe -j^,
its claw -^ ; outer toe -pj, its claw -f^r.

Femai>e. — The female resembles the male in colour.

Habits. — It is said to inhabit various parts of Africa, and
especially Abyssinia. Individuals have occurred in Italy,
Spain, Switzerland, France, and Germany ; but in the latter

44 CURSORIUS EUROPCEUS.

more northern countries it is to bu considered an extremely
rare straggler. In England not more than four specimens
have been obtained. The first of these "vvas shot on the lOtli
of November, 1785, near St. Albans, in East Kent, the seat
of William Hammond, Esq., ^vho presented it to Dr. Latham.
" He first met with it running upon some light land ; and so
little fearful was it, that after he had sent for a gun, one Avas
brought to him, which, having been charged some time, did
not readily go off, and in consequence he missed his aim.
The report frightened the bird away ; but, after making- a
turn or two, it again settled within a hundred yards of him,
when he was prepared with a second shot, which despatched
it. It was observed to run with incredible s^viftness, and, at
intervals, to pick up something from the ground ; and Avas
so bold as to render it difficult to make it rise from the
ground, in order to take a more secure aim on the wing.
The note was not like any kind of Plover's, nor, indeed to
be compared Avith that of any knoAvn bird." Montagu states
that one Avas shot, in North Wales, in lT9o, by Mr. George
Kingstone, of Queen's College, Oxford, a very accurate orni-
thologist. Mr. Atkinson, in his Comj)endium, mentions a
third that Avas shot near Wetherby, in April, 1816 ; and Mr.
George T. Fox, in the third volume of the Zoological Journal,
records a fourth, shot on the 15th of October, 1827, in
ChaniAvood Forest, in Leicestershire, and noAv in the pos-
session of the KcA'. T. Gisborne, of Yoxall Lodge, Stafford-
shire. The W^etherby bird Avas seen on a piece of dry falloAv
gTOund, running very SAviftly, and making frequent short
flights, and that of CharnAvood Forest was represented by the
person Avho shot it as uttering a cry with A\diich he Avas un-
acquainted. Both Avere easily a])proached, as Avas the first
recorded. From these circumstances I think it appears to
resemble the Little Bustard more than the PloAcrs in its
habits. Its nest and eggs Iuia'c not been descril)ed ; but the
young in their first plumage are marked in the manner of
the Sandpipers.

YoiNo. — The general colour of tlie u])per jiavts is like
tliat of the adult, but tinged witli grey, and the fi'uthers

CREAM-COLOURED COURSER. 45

having a subniarginal dusky givy line at the c-nd. Tlic
white and black lines from the eye to the occiput are much
naiTowcr, the hlack spot on the nape wanting ; the primary
(piills are margined internally with r( ddish-yellow ; the lower
parts as in the adult, hut witli angular dusky lines on the
sides.

GLAREOLA. PllATIXCOLE.

The birds of this genus, all of small size, and remarkable
for their very long and pointed Avings, forked tail, and slender
feet, have puzzled the systeniatist to such a degree that some
lia\e placed them among the Rasores, others among the
Plovers, and a few among the Swallows. M. Temminck
refers them to his order Akx-torides, consisting of the geneva
Psophia, Dicholophus, Gypogeranus, Glareola, Pahnnedea,
and Chauna. The small hind toe often present in the order
of Cursores has been productive of much confusion, — those
persons -who take some artificial, often insignificant character,
as a string on -which to run their genera, having separated
the three-toed from the four-toed Grallatores, the Plovers
from the Lapwings, for example, and the Glareolne from the
Cursorii. The present gen\is, I think, must take its place
next to Cursorius. But to determine its affinities it would
be necessary to examine its digestive organs, -vvliicli I have
not had an opportunity of doing. The body is ratlier full,
ovate, compact ; the neck short ; tlie head rather small,
ovato-oblong, and little elevated in front.

Bill short, moderately stout, somcAvhat arcuate, Avider
than high at the base, compressed toAvard the end; upper
mandible Avith the dorsal line straight for a short space, then
•ircuato-decurvate, the nasal sinus Avide and feathered, the
ridge narroAV, the edges sharp and inflected tOAvard the end,
Avithout notch, the ti]) rather acut(> ; loAver mandible Avith
the angle of nu)derate Avidth, the dorsal line slightly decurvcd,
the edges sharp and infiected, the tip acute ; the gajje-line
arched, and commencing beneath the eyes, so that the mouth
is wide, and in no respect resembles that of the I'lovers.

GLAREOLA. PKATINCOLK. 47

Nostrils l);isal, liitciiil, ohlou}^, oblique. Eyes large ; uppt-r
eyelids feathered, lower bare. Aperture of ear rather large.
Legs of moderate length, very slender; tibia bare at its lower
part, not at all " feathered to the knee" as M. Teninniiek
alleges ; tarsus moderate, slender, reticulated ; hind toe very
small, a little elevated ; lateral toes very short, the outer a
little longer, the middle toe much exceeding the rest, and
connected with the outer by a basal membrane. Claws
slender, slightly arched, compressed, acute ; that of the middle
toe very long, with the inner edge thin, and somewhat
pectinate.

Plumage moderate, soft, rather compact ; tlie feathers
ovate or elliptical ; those on the fore part of the head mode-
rate. "Wings very long, narrow, taper-pointed, very similar
in their digital part to those of the Swallows, but differing
in the cubital portion ; the quills twenty-five ; ])rimaries
tapering, very long, stiff; tlie first longest, the rest raj)idly
decreasing ; outer secondaries incurvate, broad, obliquely
emarginate ; inner moderately elongated. Tail rather long,
forked, of twelve feathers.

The Pratincoles, of which only a fcAv species are known,
are inhabitants of Africa and the warmer regions of Asia, the
Indian Islands, and Australia. One species is also exten-
sively distributed in the southern and eastern parts of Europe,
and sometimes makes its way even to England. They are
said to run Mith great celerity, fly with extreme rapiditv,
feed on insects and acpiatic worms, and reside in marshy
places, and by the sides of lakes and rivers.

Authors are far from being agi'eed as to the systematic
location of this genus. " It will be observed," says jNIontagu,
" that Linmrus placed this bird with his Hirundines, to
which, in some particulars, it has considerable affinity, though
its bill and legs certainly constitute characters sufficiently
distinct to remove it from thence ; but why it has been taken
from the land division, and placed amongst the water birds,
we are" unable to discover." "The continuator of Shaw's
Zoology" M. Temminck remarks, " says that the pratincoles
or glareolfc have not the slightest affinity to the water or
river birds, but that they are more related to the swallows j

48 GLAREOLA. TRATIXCOLE.

because, says he, they have the same wings and tail ; an
argument Avorthy of a compiler. It is useless to refute at
length this error. I have heen in Hungary in the vast
marshes of lakes Neusidel and IJalaton, surrounded -with
some hundreds of these birds, and I can assert that they
have nothing of swallows but the celerity of iiight, with
which the Skimmers, Terns, Lestres, and Petrels, are also
endowed in the highest degree." Many other opinions suc-
ceed ; but to settle all disputes as to the affinities of the
Glareoltc, it is only necessary to inspect the intestinal canal
of a single specimen. The birds to which they might be or
have been assimilated, namely, the Swallows, Goatsuckers,
Grouse, and Sandpipers, have digestive organs well charac-
terized. jNIr. Gould, who might have settled the question,
still remarks : — " I have for many years questioned the pro-
priety of placing the Pratincoles in the same group with the
Plovers, or even in the same order, beheving them as I do
to be a terrestrial form of the Fissirostral birds. Linnne\is
placed them near the Swallows, and I think he was right in
so doing ; and Mr, Blyth, one of the most philosophical of
ornithologists, entertains, I believe, the same opinion ; but
as nearlv all other writers have placed them with the Chara-
driadtv, I have adopted their view of the subject, and have
accordingly placed them in that group." Mr. Thom])Son,
also, places it at the head of the Plovers.

GLAKEOLA PRATINCOLA. THE COLLARED
PRATINCOLE.

AUSTRIAN PRATINCOLE.

I'Hi. i.

Tail deeply forked; whigs nearhj as long ; upper parts
fjreyish-hroicn ; taU-covcrfs white ; throat pale reddisJi-yclloin,
tnargined icith tico narrow hands, the inner white, the outer
black; lower wing-coverts deep hrownish-red.

Hirundo Pratincola. lAiin. Syst. Nat. I. 3-l.j.

Glarcola austriaca. Lath. Ind. Ornith. II. 753.

Glareola torquata. Austrian Pratincole. Flem. Brit. Anim. 94.

Austrian Pratincole. Mont. Ornith. Diet. Supplt.

Glarc'ole a collier. Glareola torquata. Temm. Man. d'Omith. II. 500.

Collared Pratincole. Glareola torquata. Selby, lUustr. Brit. Ornith. 11.213.

Glareola Pratincola. Collared Pratincole. Jen. Brit. Yert. Anim. 216.

Glareola Pratincola. Bonap. Comp. List. 45.

Mai,e. — The Collared Pratincole is about the .size of the
Dotterel Plover, aiul in form bears a considerable resem-
blance to a Swallow. Its body is compact ; the neck rather

uO GLAREOLA PRATLNCOLA.

short ; the head rather small, ovato-oblong;, rather depressed
in front. The hill is short, rather stout, compressed toward
the end, arcuate, and pointed ; the nasal j^oove rather wide
and feathered ; the gape-line arcuate, and commencing under
the eyes. The nostrils oblong, oblique, in the fore part of
the nasal gi-oove. The eyes large. The feet are of moderate
length, very slender ; the tibia and tarsus reticulate ; the
fomier bare for five-twelfths of an inch. The first toe is
very small, somewhat elevated, with five scutella ; the inner
with fifteen, thi' third twenty-two, the fourth eighteen ; the
outer longer than the inner, and connected by a small basal
Aveb with tlu^ middle toe, which is much longer. The claws
are somewhat arched, slender, pointed ; that of the middle
toe very long, Avith its inner edge somewhat pectinate.

The plumage is rather compact ; the feathers ovate,
rounded, and of moderate size. The wings are very long,
narrow, and pointed, witli twenty-five quills ; the primaries
tapering, the first longest, the rest rapidly decreasing ; the
outer secondaries obliquely rounded and somewhat emargi-
nate, the inner tapering, but rounded, and of moderate
length. The tail is d(>eply forked, of tAvelve feathers, of
which the lateral arc two inches longer than the medial.

The bill is black, at the base carmine-red, as are the
margins of the eyelids; the feet dusky-grey. The general
colour of the upper parts is greyish-brown, with a tinge of
green. The upper tail-coverts white ; the tail-feathers white
at the base, dark-brown at the end. The quills are blackish-
broAvn, glossed with green, the inner like the back. On the
throat is a large patch of psUe reddish-yellow, margined by
two narrow bands, the inner white, the outer brownish-
black, which ascend to the eye ; the space between which
and the bill is blackish-brown. The sides of the neck, its
lower ])art in front, a portion of the breast, and of the sides
of the body are of the same greyish-brown as the back, but
})al('r ; the rest of the lower parts white, anteriorly tinged
with red. The axillar feathers and middle lower wing-
coverts are of a dwyt brownish-red; the larger and tliose
along th(> edge of the wing brownish-<;T(^y, th(> latter mixed
Avith white.

COLLARED PRATINCOLE. 51

Lcngtli to end of tail 10 inches ; wing from Hcxurc 7;^;
tail 4 ; bill along the ridge -yj ; along the edge of lower
mandible J-^ ; tarsus 1-|V; hind toe -,3_^ its claw -^ ; second
toe -^TT, its claw -|^ ; third toe -j^, its claw -/v ; fourth toe -j*^ ;
its claw -j^.

Female. — The female is similar to the male.

Variations. — Individuals vary in their tints, both ac-
cording to age and the season of the year, the moult being
said to be double, although the winter plumage differs little
from that of summer.

Habits. — M. Temminck informs us that this species
"" inhabits the margins of rivers, inland seas, and lakes, of
which the waters form large rushy marshes ; lives in the
])r()vinces bordering on the confines of Asia, and in the
southern countries of that vast continent ; is common on tlie
saline lakes and vast marshes of Hungary ; is a regular or
accidental visitant in some provinces of Germany and
France, Switzerland, and Italy, but of very rare occurrence
in Holland and England. It feeds especially on flies and
other winged insects which live among the rushes and reeds,
darting upon them with astonishing rapidity, and seizing
them both on wing and by running. It nestles among the
thickest reeds and tall plants, and lays three or four eggs."

Montagu states that an individual was shot near Liver-
pool, on the 18th of May, 1804. It was killed in the act of
taking beetles on wing, the remains of which Aven^ found in
its stomach. This specimen, which was seen when newly
shot, by Mr. Bullock, was sent to Lord Stanley's collection.
In 181j2, ^Ir. Bullock had the good fortune to procure another
in Unst, the most northern of the Shetland Islands. " When
I first discovered it," he says, in the Transactions of the Lin-
Vfpan Society, " it rose within a few feet, and flew round me
in the manner of a swallow, and then alighted close to the
h(>ad of a cow that was tethered within ten yards distance.
After examining it a few minutes, I returned to the house of
T. Edmondston, Esq., for my gun, and, accompanied h\ that

52 GLAREOLA PRATIXCOLA.

gentleman's brother, wont in seurc-h of it. After a sliort
time, it came out of some growing corn, and was catcliing
insects at the time I fired, and, being wounded only in the
wing, we had an opportunity of examining it alive. In the
form of its bill, wings, and tail, as avcII as its mode of flight,
it greatly resembles the genus llirundo ; but, contrary to the
whole of this family, the legs were long, and bare above the
knee, agviunng with Tringa ; and, like the Sandpipers, it ran
with tlie greatest rapidity when on the gi-ound, or in shallow
water, in pursuit of its food, which was wholly of flies, and
of which its stomach was full." Four other instances of its
occurrence in England are mentioned, and one in the south
of Ireland.

Although nothing less than an inspection of the internal
structure of a bird can determine its relations, when its ex-
terior presents anomalies or combinations of fomis indicative
of various affinities, the examination of even a prepared skin,
which is all I have of the Pratincole, is capable of affording
much information. The bill of this bird, — which is short,
stout, arched, opening to beneath the eyes, and broad at the
base, compressed towards the end, and with the tips of both
mandibles narrow, but rather obtuse, the mouth being at the
same time Avide, — has no relation, even in the least degree, to
that of the Plovers, or any of the other probing birds, of
which the bill is typically long, slender, straight, compressed,
slightly enlarged toward the end, opening far anterior to the
eyes, the mouth being also extremely narrow. It tlicrefore
belongs to none of these tribes ; but in the fomi of its bill
a])proximates to the Bustards, and is Cursitorial or Galli-
naceous. The head rather large and flattened above re-
sembles tliat of the Otinir, and the large eyes may be theirs
as well as of the Plovers, The legs, of moderate length, and
slender, resemble those of the Totatina) in fonn, as do the
toes, only the middle toe is ])rop(n"tionally longer; but they
also resemble those of some Otina; and Gallinaceous birds.
As to the Avings, they diffcT greatly from those of any Otis,
being very elongated, narrow, and pointed, the primaries
somewhat iucurvate, and resemble those of a Swift or
Swallow ; but the secondaries are not few and very short, as

COLLARED PRATINTOLE. 53

ill these birds, Ix'iiii;- fifteen in nnniher, like those of a Trinj^a
or Totanus, the inner elongated, but in a less dej^ree than
tliose of the Probers. They are certainly not the wings of a
vSwallow ; nor do they differ essentially from those of a
Plover, Sand{)i])er, or other bird of the order to which these
belong. Tlu! forked tail, of twelve feathers, resembles that
of a Swallow ; but a forked tail, as in the Kite, may occur
in families of which the tail is generally rounded. The form
of the tail, therefore, indicates nothing very particular, but
ajjpears from anah)gy to have relation simply to flight, it
being often associated with long, narrow, and pointed wings,
as in the Terns ; though what its action may be I do not
understand. Tlie plumage agrees with that of some of the
llasorial birds, and with that of some Cursitorial and Tenta-
torial ; so far as regards the structure of the feathers and
their plumule, the bird might be of any of these groups. It
is decidedly not a Pluvialiue, Tringinc>, Totanine, or Scolo-
pacine bird, nor a Swallow, nor a Swift ; nor of any order of
Land Birds, so called. It may be a Rasorial, but is more
probably a Cursorial bird. The inspection of the exterior, I
think, sheAvs nothing more.

XIV. TENTATORES. rKOBERS.

Intimately connected witli tlio Otinic on the one hand,
and on the other with the TantahniiD hy the <renn^< Nunieniiis,
the Tentatores, Uke most very natural j^ou})s that have
obvious affinities, are not very easily defined. It may be
remarkcnl here tliat, although the Snipes, being perliaps
more tiuiiiliarly known than the other genera, are usually
considered as ty})ical of this series, which accordingly is fre-
([uently named after them, yet the Godwits and several other
genera in which the bill and feet are very long, seem to me
to have a better claim to this distinction. The genera may
be grouped so as to foi-m several distinct families, with as
much propriety as has been done in the case of the Canta-
tores, in which the Turdinte, Alaudina', jNIotacillina?, and
others differ very little in any important point of view, — their
skeletons and digestive organs being very similar. But as
they graduate into each other, and that in a com})lex manner,
so that a ])articular genus may be closely allied to another
genus in tlie form of its bill, while in the structure of its feet
akin to a third genus differing considerably in the bill, I
have thouglit it better here to give the prevalent characters
of the entire group.

Tliey are birds of moderate or small size, the largest not
exceeding a I'hcasant, and the least not so large as a Pipit.
The body is ovate, and compact ; the neck long or moderate ;
tlic licad small, ovate, couqjrcsscd, ajid rounded above. The
bill is seldom shorter, usually longer than the head, slender.

TENTATOIIES. PROBERS. 55

Roinowhat cyliiKliicul, licncrally in souw (U'<;rt'{' flcxil)k' ; the
ii])]H'r iiiaiuHbk' with the ridf»e sejuiviitcd from the very
narrow sides hy a groove on cacli side, extending often to
the point, Avhich is somewhat blunt ; the lower mandible
Avitli the aiinle very long and narrow, the sides grooved, tlu*
tip rather aeute. The tongue is slender, sagittate and papil-
late at the base, triangular, tapering to a point. On the roof
of the mouth are two or three rows of ])apilUe, directed back-
wards. The a'sophagus is narrow, with the proventriculiis
bulbiform or oblong ; the stomach oblong or elliptical, with
strong lateral nniscl(>s and large tendinous spaces, its e])itlie-
iiuni dense, hard, with large longitudinal ruga^ ; the intestine
of moderate length, and rather narrow ; the coeca ratlier long,
cylindrical, or oblong; the cloaca ol)long.

Tlie legs are slender, generally long, often moderate ; the
tibia scarcely ever feathered to the joint ; the tarsus slender,
scutellate in front ; the toes of moderate length, slender, the
anterior spreading an<l more or less webbed at the base, the
first small, elevated, sometimes wanting ; the claws small,
com])ressed, arched, acute.

The plumage is generally soft and blended, or somewhat
compact ; the feathers oblong or ovate, ^A-ith a rather large
down-plumule. The wings are long, of moderate breadth,
acute ; the first quill generally longest, some of the inner
secondaries narrow, tapering, and nearly as long as the outer
])rimaries Avhen the Aving is closed. Tail short or moderate,
of twelve or sometimes more feathers, and varying in fonn.

The skeleton is very similar in all the species which I
have examined. The cranium is rather small, the part con-
taining the brain short, rounded behind ; the intcrocular
septum incomplete, as is a large portion of the base of the
skull anteriorly. The jaws are very elongated and slender ;
the nasal sinus extremely long, extending nearly to the tip,
so as to separate the medial from the lateral portions ; tlu're
is also a groove along the crura of the lower jaw. Taking
the Curlew as an example, we find that it has 44 vertebroe,
of which 14 are cervical, 9 dorsal, 13 sacral, and 8 ca\ulal.
The cervical vertebra; are moderate, Avith large articulations.
The ribs, nine in number, are very slender ; the first rudi-

TENTATORES. PROBERS.

incntan', tlie second iiicompleto, and -snth the last destifxite
of process. The body of tlic storninn is of niodcrato lengtli
and breadth, concave, "vvith two deep sinuses beliind tiUetl by
membrane ; the crest extremely prominent, its lower outline
a little convex, the anterior concave. Tlie clavicles are
rather short and moderately stout ; tlie furcxila rather slender,
cuned, with the angle rather wide and rounded. Tlie sca-
pula slender and arcuate. Tlie himierus moderately long,
tlie cubitus about a fourth longer ; two carjial bones ; the-
pollical bone slender and tapering ; the two metacAqjal bonesi
united at both ends, the inner very slender ; the outer digital
bone broad, internally thin-edged, the inner ver^' small and
curved, the extreme digital binie slender and tapering. The
peh'is is large ; the ischium united, but leaving a large
oblong foramen ; the pubes very slender, free unless at the
base ; the femur of moderate length ; the tibia very long,
slender ; the fibula very slender, partially united, extending
to about half the length of the tibia ; tarsus nearly square ;
the hind toe elevated, small, of tAvo phalanges, and a basal
bone, the rest of rather short, three, lour, and five phalanges.

Viu. 5.

Tlie skeleton of the Snipe is vciy little (h'ffrrent, the limbs
only being shorter, and the bones proportionally thinner. In
it the vertebra^ are 4.'5, of which X'-l are cervical, 9 dorsal,
18 sacral, and 8 caudal.

TENTATORES. PllOBEllS. 57

IJirtls of tliis order occur in iiU couutric-'. Tlicy lVc(|ucnt
marslics, tlio miuf;ins of lakes and rivers, and the sliores of
the sea. Their food consists essentially of wonns, and small
testaceous mollusca, as well as insects of various kinds, and
along Avith it a (juantity of sand is usually found in the
stomach, which is a true gizzard, adapted for bruising. The
refuse is not disgorged, but passes in a comminuted state
through the intestine. Generally speaking, they run with
extreme celerity, tliose which freciueut the shores of the sea
following the retiring wave, and retreating as the next
advances. Very many of them have an almost continued
vibrating motion of the body. On being alarmed, they run
a short way and take to fliglit ; but some of the shorter-
legged species, on apprehending danger, lie close to the
ground. They all wade in the water, and for the most part
procure their food by thrusting their bills into the soft nnul
or saiul, the extremities of the bill, from the size of the
nerves distributed to them, and the delicate skin which
covers it, being probably very sensitive. The flight of all
the species is rapid, and protracted. They frequently in
living incliiu^ the body to either side, the individuals of a
whole flock acting thus in concert. Their cries are loud,
shrill, and generally reiterated. Most of them are gregarious
in various degrees, and migratory, advancing in flocks toward
-warmer regions as the cold increases. The larger species
are extremely shy, vigilant, and, on being alarmed, clamorous ;
but the smaller, when feeding, being intent on their occu-
pation, often allow a near approach. They nestle on the
ground, in marshy places, forming a slight nest in a hollow,
and laying four pyriform, spotted eggs, of which the smaller
ends are placed together. The young, at first densely clothed
with down, are able to run about soon after birth, and con-
ceal themselves by lying flat. AVhen the nest or young are
approached, the parents fly about in great agitation, uttering
shrill cries, or feign lameness to draw off" the intruder. The
females are frequently larger tlian the males ; the colours of
the plumage in many change with the renewal of the feathers
twice in the year ; their flesh is generally juicy, and forms
an agreeable article of food.

58 TEXTATOIIES. PIIOBERS.

The Pluvialintp have often been referred to the last
order ; but in the stnicture of tlieir skeleton, form of their
wings, mode of flying, running, and proeuring their food,
these birds are most intimately allied to the other fomilies.
Nothing is more common than to see species of the two
groups intermingled Avhile feeding. On the sea-shore the
Dunlins, for example, and Ring-plovers ; and in summer, on
the moors, the Dunlins and Golden Plovers or Lapwings.

Numerous species occur in Britain. They may be dis-
posed into four principal groups or families, namely, tlu'
Pluvialinaj or Plovers, the Tringinec or Sandpipers, the
Totanina? or Tatlcrs, and the Scolopacinjc or Snipes ; of
which the peculiar characters will be very briefly given.

1. Pli viAi.iN.^. The head roundish, much rounded
above ; the bill generally about the length of the head, but
sometimes longer, and often shorter, straight, or very slightly
recurvate, mostly slender, compressed, blunt, the iipper man-
dible with its outline convex toward the end, the nasal
groove extending about two-thirds of its length ; eyes gene-
rally large and prominent ; feet long and slender ; toes small,
rather short, flat beneath, and marginate ; sometimes a dimi-
nutive hind toe ; wings long, narrow, pointed or moderately
rounded, the inner secondaries elongated and tapering; tail
short, rounded, of twelve feathers.

2. TiiixGiN.^. The head small, compressed, rounded in
front ; the bill long, straight, sometimes arcuate, sometimes
a little bent upwards, slender, compressed, the nasal gi-oove
extending nearly to the end ; eyes generally small ; feet
rather long, slender ; toes four, the hind toe very small and
elevated, anterior toes of moderate length, sometimes free,
generally more or less webbed at the base ; Mings long,
narroAV, pointed, some of the inner secondaries much elon-
gated and tapering ; tail short, of twelve feathers.

(PjiAiARoriNuE. The general characters of the Tringinw

TENTATOKES. PROBERS. 69

and Totauiiuc ; but the toes broadly bctrdcicd, or lol)att'.
The habits more aquatic.)

3. ToTAXiN'.'E. Tlu' head small, coinpressed, roundi'd in
front ; the bill very lou^-, straight, mostly in some dej^ree
recurvate, very slender, compressed, or toward the end de-
pressed, the tips acute; eyes rather large; feet very long
and slender ; toes four, the hind toe very small and elevated,
or three only, slender, of moderate length, webbed at the
base ; wings very long, pointed, some of the inner sect>ndaries
elongated and tapering ; tail short, rounded, of twelve
feathers.

4. Scoi.OPACix.^. The head rather small, much com-
pressed, rounded above ; the bill very long, straight, slender,
compressed until toward the end, when it becomes more or
less enlarged ; eyes rather large ; tarsi short ; toes four, the
first very small and elevated, the anterior long, slender ;
wings long or moderate, rather broad, but pointed ; the inner
secondaries generally mnch elongated, sometimes moderate
and rounded ; tail short, of from twelve to twenty-four
feathers.

Among the most remarkable traits in the character of
the Grallatorial tribes is the manner in which they protect
their nests and young from predacious animals, of which man
is probably the most mischievous. Although the employ-
ment of stratagem or dissimulation is neither peculiar to
them, it being equally exhibited by many of the Rasorial
species, nor yet general, it being little observable in the
Aucupatorial or Latitorial tribes, it is more obvious to the
observer and carried to greater perfection in the Tentatorial
Order than in any other. But, to form a correct idea of it,
we ought to take a general view of the means employed by
birds in defending their progeny. We may confine ourselves
to the British species, they being sufficiently numerous to
furnish facts capable of leading to correct notions on this
interesting subject.

Now, on examining the habits of the Raptorial Birds, we
find that they never employ stratagem in defending their

60 TENTATORES. PKOBEKS.

nests, hut use open foree. Tliis is in accordanec with their
orfi^anization, they being supplied with very ethcient weapons,
in their sliarp and curved hills and claws, and with means of
rapid loeoniotion in their powerful wings. The Perej^Tine
Falcon instantly attacks any suspected bird, such as a Kaven
or II()()ded Crow, that approaches the cliif on which its nest
is built, but pays no attention to those which it acquits of
hostile intentions. It will even assail, and, if necessary,
strike at the Sea Eagle or the Golden Eagle, which it knows
to be destructive birds, althoiigh it does not appear that they
ever attack that vigorous and watchful bird or meddle with
its nest. Some of the smaller hawks, especially the Merlin
and the Sparrow-Hawk, are equally ready to drive off in-
triulers. Birds of this tribe, when excited by the screams of
their young, or even when simply seeing their nests invaded,
fearlessly attack man himself, of whom, in other circum-
stances, they have a salutary dread. Vultures, it is said, are
less courageous, and we have none to make observations
upon ; and Owls, being of nocturnal habits, are in a gi-eat
measure removed from our inspection, although it is known
that they occasionally make a vigorous defence.

The Insessorial birds are less efficiently anned, and yet
many of them display the greatest courage in defending their
nests. The larger species, especially the Raven, the Hooded
Crow and the Carrion Crow, have strength and spirit enough
to drive off Gulls, Hawks, and all other birds of Avliich they
are suspicious. I have often seen two liavens sally forth to
meet or pursue an Eagle that happened to come within a
quarter of a mile of their nest, and so annoy him as make
him glad to get away from them as soon as possible. Yet,
when p]agles and Ravens nestle in the same rock, or range
of cliffs, they live quite peaceably together. There are
among the smaller s])e(ies numy, such as the Titmice,
Thrushes, and Swallows, that make a vigorous defence of
their nests ; but very many others nu>ndy kec]) Hying around
and evincing tlieir anxietv bv fveciuent cries. AN'licn a ])air
of l)ir(ls attf'mj)t t(t sci/r upon tlie nest of another pair, of a
different species, the latter, if not -.Mr to make an eiKcient
defence, attract by their screams numerous individuals of their

TENTATOIiKS. PllOBEKS. 61

own kind, -vvliicli attiick or annoy the intruders. It niiglit
be sup})osed that tlic situation of the nest would in some
measure determine the mode of defence, and that the owners
of those i)hieed on the ground would, if feeble, use stratagem
to decoy intruders away. Few of them, however, shew this
kind of instinct otherwise than, when very closely ajjproached,
bv riving off close to the ground, in a cowering or fluttering
manner, as if disabled. The Pipits, for example, act in this
way, which, however, seems the effect of fright, rather than
an attem])t to draw attention to themselves, and thus save
their charg(\ I have seen a pole-cat eating the young ones
in a lark's nest, while the parent birds, and some others of
the same species, attracted by their cries, were hovering over
it and vociferating loudly, but without venturing to attack
it, or attempting to decoy it away. But, we know very little
of the defensive habits of birds except Avith reference to our-
selves ; and in most cases their courage and cunning are of
little avail in preserving cither themselves or their progeny
irom our tyranny. Although the Raven is the largest and
strongest bird of this grouj), and can protect himself from all
our native birds and (piadrupeds, he sometimes employs dis-
simulation when man is the aggressor, and I have seen one,
after I had long been endeavouring to find a way to its nest
in a maritime cliff, and to shoot itself, fly to a distance, and
on an elevated place flutter and roll over, as if expiring in
agony.

The Deglubitorial, or smaller thick-billed birds, seldom
employ either force or cunning in defence of their nests ; but
merely hover about, emitting cries, or stand silent in the
neighbourhood.

Most of the Rasorial birds, however, evince great anxiety
for the safety of their eggs or young ; and many of them,
especially the Partridges, feign lameness, and use other
stratagems to withdraw from their charge the attention of
intruders, whether canine or human. They have, at the
same time, gi-cat boldness on such occasions, and will often
attack crows, weasels, or other destructive prowlers. The
Pigeons merely flit about at a safe distance, or even fly off
altocrether.

62 TENTATORES. PROBERS.

Tho habits of the Cursorial birds arc little known ; but
those of the Tentatorial are patent to the observation of all
who traverse our fields and moors, or have occasion to visit
the sandy shores of the sea. The Lapwing, the Golden
Plover, and the common Rin<;-Plover, fly n\) to an intruder,
keep hovering over and around him, or alight, and manifest
the greatest anxiety and anger. The males sometimes, but
generally tlie females, will move crouchinglv to some dis-
tance, and flutter on the ground, as if mortally wounded,
limp as if one of their legs were broken, or shew a fiactured
or dislocated wing, hanging or whirling about in a most
surprisingly simulative manner. The object of all this pre-
tended distress is obviously to withdraw the attention of
men, dogs, polecats, weasels, foxes, crows, or other animals
from their nests, and attract it to themselves. If you come
up to one of these birds fluttering apparently in extreme
agony, it will not cease its display of siifl'ering until you are
very near it, Avhen it will limp away with drooping wings,
keeping so little ahead that you feel sure of catching it ; but
gradually as it removes from the nest, it revives, and Avhen
it has drawn you far enough to render it dilHcult for you to
find again tlie spot whence you were enticed, it will fly oft"
exultingly, emitting perha])s a merrv note, as if conscious of
the success of its stratagem. The unsophisticated bird,
" pure from {\\c hand of nature," and with morals uncon-
taminated, actmilly practises deceit. It sees an enemy
approacliing its young ; it feels alarmed for their safety, and,
knowing that it has not strength to drive oft" the aggi'essor,
it essays to mislead and bewilder him. Knowing that the
intruder has a ])ropensity to seize or destroy even a poor
little innocent bird, it runs away a little, and then shews a
broken leg and a shattered wing, as if it said, " See, how
easy it is for you to catch me, wlien I can neither run fast
nor fly at all." Then it pretends to try to rise on wing, and
falls over on one side, but is up again, and limps along.
" Come, you may be quite sure of me if you follow. No ne(^d
of salt ; but if you have some, you see how easy it is to put
it on my tail." So the chacc connnences, and soon ends in
disappointment to the pursuer, who cannot ludp laughing at

TENTATORKS. PROBERS. 63

himself. The Greenshaiik and llodshaiik, as wrll as most
of the Totanina?, act differently. They come clamourinf; up
from a <>Teat distance, wheel, and ])lun<;e, and f^Hde, scream-
ing and scolding- Avithout intermission, alann all the timid
animals within at least a quarter of a mile around, and the
nearer you approach their nest, the more extravagant are
they in their rage. Perhaps the ohject of this kind of pro-
ceeding is to intimidate their ordinary enemies, such as
hawks and small quadrupeds ; but it certainly tends to
betray their secret to man, who might pass by unconscious
were they to remain quiet and keep out of sight.

As to the Herons, they could defend themselves from
most birds, Avere they active enough ; but a crow or a jack-
daw will sometimes carry off an v<!;^ from an uncovered nest,
while other Herons are by, and if they attempt to catch the
thief, they only make fools of themselves. The Skulkers,
such as Coots, Water-hens, and Rails, are never bold enough
to face an enemy of any vigour, as a Polecat or Weasel, but
keep running or swimming about. When their young are
■with them, however, they manage much better : forAvhen an
alarm-click is uttered by the mother, all the chicks scatter
about, dive, and in some concealed place each puts up its
head just far enough to be able to breathe, and the parent
bird does the same ; or they get among the thick reeds and
equiseta, Avherc they arc secure enough ; or squat among
the herbage.

I do not think that any British bird uses stratagem or
deceit for any other purpose than that of protecting its eggs
or young. It is alleged that the Jay and the Butcher Bird
imitate the cries of various birds Avith the vicAv of alluring
them to destruction ; but tliis object is merely conjectural,
Avhatcner may be their motive for the mimicry. " The
Flusher, Lanius Collurio," Mr. Rennie says, " is said to lure
small birds Avithin its beat by mimicking their notes ; —
a feat of ingenuity not borne out by any observation Ave have
been able to make, though our attention has been for fiA'e
summers directed to this point, in a district Avhere the
species abounds. We have, on the contrary, ascertained
that the Flusher utters no call that has the most distant

64 TEXTATORES. PROBERS.

resemblance to that of any other bird, its usual note bcinsr a
harsh, disagreeable screech."

Some persons have moralized on the cunninfj^ of birds.
They cannot believe that they should naturally possess any
instinct leadin"^ them to acts such as in men are accounted
evil. But a rational bcinj;-, and an instinctive animal, have
no moral aflinitv. AVhv should not animals use stratauem
in defence of themselves or their youn<i? Is cunning- a
gTcater crime than murder !* And yet who finds fault with
an eagle for tearing a lamb to pieces, but the shepherd and
his master ; or with a lion for devouring a Bosjesman or a
Dutch Boor, but other Bosjesmen and Boors, who may dread
the same fate ! If a myrmelcon digs a pit, and lies in wait
to seize and devour t\\c imhappy insect that has fallen into
it, do not men — moral men — make pits to entrap elephants,
hyenas, wolves, and other beasts ! Who blames the fisher
for his practices, although his whole art is a piece of mean
deceit ? He lets down into the dark sea a web of cord, and
])ersuades the silly herrings that there is nothing in their
way. He busks a pointed and barbed hook, casts it on the
water, and says to the trout, — there's a nice fat fly for you !
He impales a sprawling frog, and letting it down the stream
pretends to attend to the comfort of the hungry pike, who is
not insensible of his good fortune until he feels the steel
points thrilling his pneumo-gastric nerves. The hunter and
the sportsman have at least the (puilities of boldness and
openness ; but the angler is a mere cheat.

It is certain, hoAvcver, that perfect candour and openness
are never practised among men. It would even appear that
they consider the exercise of these qualities impracticable,
or conducive to serious detriment ; and, in polished societies
especially, dissimiilation is really viewed, even by the most
respectable persons, as a necessary defence from the injuries
to be looked for from every one around. No merchant,
speculator, or tradesman discloses his schemes to his kind
neighbours, for he knows that some among them would
endeavour to turn such knowledge to his o^nl account ; and
all im])ortant schemes are ke])t as profoundly secret as pos-
sible, unless publicity be essential to their success. Every

TENTATORES. PROBERS. 65

man suspects every other; hence, a promise is nothinfj; witli-
out witnesses. Who would k'nd his ])est friend a hundred
j)ouuds, without interest and good security .' An lioncst and
candid man cannot thriv(! among the traders and mammon-
worshippers of tliis Clnistian country. lie is esteemed a
simph'ton, a fool, an imbecile. If you are candid, and deter-
mine to remain so, expect not to be rich. They who differ
from you in politics or religion will not allow yoiu* cherished
virtue to be of any merit. Your neighbours will prey u})on
you, when you are well off; and when yon are poor, should
any of them lend you a hand, he Avill, with the other, take
your watch from you. They say, " After all, honesty is the
best policy," — which means, they know nothing at all of
honesty ; for it has nothing to do with policy.

The tricks of birds are very blameless compared with
those of men. The most amusing instance of cunning in a
bird, and of gullibility in an ornithologist, that I know, is of
the Lapwing, and some persons who have made a gTeat
matter of it. That bird has a habit of very gently and
quickly patting its little feet on the ground, as it stands
looking around. The object of this movement is said to be
to cause the worms to emerge from their holes. Those in
the neighbourhood, sensible of a commotion in the gi"ound,
imagine it to be caused by the poking of a mole, to escape
the voracity of which they suddenly emerge upon the siu-face,
to be instantly seized by the cunning and expectant Lap-
wing. Other birds pat the ground precisely in the same
manner, but certainly not with such an object. Gulls, when
resting on the sands, and not thinking of food, I have often
seen performing the same act. As to the Lapwing, its weight
is so small that its slight pattings could not cause any gi'cat
earthquake ; and, on the other hand, if you stand still and
observe the heavings of the ground caused by the progi-ess of
a mole, you never see the worms in its course coming to the
surface.

PLLYIALIN^.

PLOVERS AND ALLIED SPECIES.

The birds of Avhich this itmiily is composed have a mani-
fest mutual resemblance, but with differences sufficient to
indicate generic distinctions, such as may in most instances
be readily appreciated, ffidicnemus appears to lead directly
from Otis of the preceding family, which is allied, on the
one hand, to the Perdicina', and on the other to the Struthi-
onina^, or Ostriches. Most of the species are three-toed, and
when a hind toe exists, it is always diminutive, and elevated
above the level of the rest. Yanellus has a hind toe, and a
broader form of AWng, but otherwise is very similar to Pluvia-
lis, one of the species of which, having also a hind toe, has
been separated to form a genus to which Cuvier has given
the name of Squatarola. Other Plovers constitute the
genera Eudromias, Dotterel, and Hiaticula, Ring-Plover,
more distinguishable by differences in the mode of colouring
than by any structural character. The genus Charadrius of
Linna'us, however, I divide into only two: Pluvialis and
Charadrius. Strepsilas and Ostralegiis are the only other
British genera. The latter, most intimately allied to the
former, has a more elongated bill, and leads to tlic family of
Scolopacintr.

These birds arc generally of small size, and many of them
are very diminutive, although some are rather large. In
general, they have a moderately full, or rather slender body,
of an ovate, somewhat compressed form ; slender legs, rather

PLOVERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 67

loiit^, or of iiiodcratL' length ; lon;^' wiiii^s ; ii rather short
neek, and a roundish head, which is always elevated and
rounded in front, like that of the Pigeons.

The bill is generally about the length of the head, in
some cases longer, and frequently much shorter, straight or
very slightly recurvate, slenth'r, tajjering, conijjressed, l)lunt ;
the upper mandible with its outline straight and slightly
declinate for half or more of its length, then convex or
bulging towards the end, the nasal groove extending about
two-thirds of its length ; the lower numdible with the angle
moderately long and narrow, the dorsal outline ascending
and a little convex. IJoth mandibles an; internally mode-
rately concave ; the posterior aperture of the nares is oblongo-
linear, margined with acute papilla? ; the palate soft with
conical papilla?. The tongue is short or of moderate length,
fleshy, narrow, emarginate and papillate at the base, Hattish
above, its tip entire. The mouth is extremely narrow : the
a^sophagus narrow, of nearly uniform diameter; proventri-
culus oblong, with oblong glandules. The gizzard is large,
elliptical, compressed, its muscles very large and distinct ;
its cuticular coat tough, with prominent transverse rugje.
The intestine is slender, of moderate length ; the coeca rather
long, and subcylindrical.

The eyes are generally large and prominent ; the eyelids
densely feathered. The nostrils are sub-basal, lateral, linear,
of moderate length, in the long, bare, basal membrane. The
aperture of the ear is roundish, and of moderate size.

The feet are long and slender ; the tibia bare at its lower
part ; the tarsus long or moderate, a little compressed, reticu-
lated or anteriorly scutellate ; the toes small and rather
short, flat beneath and marginate ; three before, spreading- ;
the hind toe wanting, or very small and above the general
level. The claws are small, arched, compressed, slender,
blunted.

yiG. 6.

PLUVIALIN^.

The plumage is close, short, and generally blended ; the
feathers oblong, rounded, with loose margins ; those on the
face very short, on the middle and hind part of the back also
short; the scapulars very long and narrow. Tlie wings are
long, narrow, pointed, or moderately rounded, with twenty-
five feathers ; the inner secondaries elongated and tapering.
The tail is short, even or rounded, of twelve feathers.

Fio. 8.

The skeleton of the Pluvialina? bears in some respects a
great resemblance to that of the Columbinop, although the
differences are also great, especially in the form of the
sternum and the length of the feet. Taking the Golden
Plover and Lapwing as types, we observe the following cha-
racters. The structure generally is rather delicate, the bones
being slender or thin. The skull is rather large, oblong,
compressed ; with the se])tum between the orbits very incom-
plete, having in it two large apertures. The orbits are very
large, incomplete below, their upper margins elevated so as
to leave a deep groove between them, in which are the two
narrow curved depressions for the supraorbital glands. The
intermaxillary bones are linear, and separated from the
maxillary, which are very narrow, by a vacuity extending
nearly to the end. The lower jaw is entire, arched, towards

PLOVKllS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 69

thf 011(1 striiif^lit aiul iittcmiiitcd. The crrvical vertebrae are
tliirteen, the dorsal nine, the hinihar and sacral twelve, the
caudal nine. The nhs are nine, the first rudimentary, the
second inconiidcte, all very slender, coniprcssed. The sternum
is large, its body of moderate breadth, with the sides parallel,
its posterior margin slightly obli(|ue on each side, with a
small sinus and smaller foramen ; the crest, which ( xtends
its whole length, is very high, anteriorly concave. The
eoracoid bones are moderately stout ; the furcula rather
narrow, considerably curved, and very slender. The scapula
is nnifonn and pointed. The wings are long; the humerus
rather long ; the cubitus considerably longer ; the hand of
the same length as the latter. At the base of the larger
metacarpal bone the anterior process is thin and rounded,
but in some species is elongated, and covered with a conical
horn or spur. Of course, if the tarsal spur of the Rasores
be analagous to the hallux, the carpal spur of many of the
Grallatoria? and Natatoria? corresponds to the pollex. Beyond
this process is the slender bone of the first or alular finger ;
the other two fingers are united ; the anterior having a large
metacarpal bone, and two phalanges, both of which are more
or less flattened and posteriorly thin-edged ; the other having
a slender metacarpal bone attached at both ends, and a single
phalanx united with that of the other. The pelvis is com-
paratively small, but very wide beneath. The sacrum is
(piite distinct, not being anchylosed with the innominata, of
which the anterior or iliac plate is narrow, rounded, and
does not rise above the level of the vcrtebrtc, of which the
spinous processes are extremely short. The sciatic foramen
is elliptical, the thyroid rountlish. The pubes is linear,
slightly recurved, and free, or united only anteriorly. The
thigh bones are very short and of moderate strength ; the
tibia very long, slender, roundish, the fibula rudimentary,
scarcely extending a third of the length of the tibia ; the
tarsus rather long or moderate. The toes are slender ; the
first cither wanting, or extremely small and running off above
the level of the rest, with two phalanges and a basal bone ;
the second shorter than the outer, of three phalanges ; the
third longest, of four ; the fourth of five.

70 rLUVIALIX.E.

Tlie muscular system is moderately developed. Tlie pec-
toral and other muscles of the wing are rather large. The
skin is very thin, and has a considerable quantity of fat
adhering.

The digestive organs are adapted for insects, larva?,
Avorms, small Crustacea, and similar objects. No bird that
eats entire and live animals has a crop, and thus the Chara-
drianae pass their food directly to the gizzard, where, with
the aid of sand or gravel, it is triturated. Being then
delivered to the intestine, it receives the bile and pancreatic
fluid. Tlie ftfces and urine, being first deposited in the
elliptical cloaca, are voided in a semifluid state.

These birds are generally gregarious and migrator}-,
breeding in the northern regions. Their nest is a cavity
formed in sand or gi"avel, generally without any substance
intervening between it and the eggs ; which are for the most
jiart four, extremely large, ppiform, spotted and clouded
Avitli dark brown. The young are born covered with long
soft down, run about presently, and squat when alarmed.

The Pluvialinse nin with very great speed, by short steps,
with the body horizontal, and the head raised. They do not
vibrate their body, like the Scolopacina^. Their cries are
generally clear, loud, and mellow. Their sight is very acute,
and they feed by moonlight as well as by day. They frequent
wild and uncultivated moors or pastures, or ploughed fields,
or sands, or the shores of the sea or of lakes and rivers ; and
pick up their food directly, M-ithout generally probing for it
in the mud, their bills being short and firm.

Their flight is strong, direct, on ordinary occasions sedate ;
but, when requisite, very rapid, their pinions Avhistling as
they fly. They often move in extended lines, or in various
figures, and often perform circular flights before alighting.
When httle disturbed they are not shy, but on being perse-
cuted they soon learn to distrust their enemies. All the
species manifest great anxiety for their eggs or young,
feigning lameness to induce intruders to pursue them.

The plumage is changed in autumn ; and a partial moult
takes place in spring, so that the colours in summer are to a
certain extent diflerent, many species assuming black on the

PLOVERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 71

breast. Tlio males and females arc generally similar, the
t'onnrv always lar<>er. The young in their first plumage
differ from tlie adult.

Individuals of this family are foimd in all countries of the
globe. In Britain, one species or other may be seen in almost
every part, and at every season ; but in winter and spring
they chiefly frequent the sea-shore and the fields in its
vicinity, while in summer they are scattered over the
interior.

SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES.

GENUS I. CEDICNEMUS. THICK-KNEE.

Bill rather longer than the head, stout, straight, depressed
at the base, compressed toward the end ; ridge of the upper
mandible prominent, straight to the middle, then slightly
arched and declinate, the tip rather acute ; gape-line straight,
commencing under the anterior angle of the eye ; nasal
sinuses large ; nostrils linear-oblong, medial, direct. Legs
long, slender ; tibio-tarsal joint large ; tarsus reticulate with
hexagonal scales ; toes three, short, with short basal Avebs ;
claws short, convex. Wings of moderate length, pointed ;
tail short.

1. (Edicnemiis crepitans. Stone Thick-knee. Bill pale-
yellow at the base, black at the end ; feet yellow ; head and
upper parts pale reddish-yellow, streaked with bro^vn.

GENUS II. PLUVIALIS. PLO^'ER.

\ Bill nearly as long as the head, rather slender, straight,
compressed ; upper mandible with the dorsal line straight for
two-thirds, then bulging a little, or arcuate, at the end, the
ti]) narrow, but rather obtuse ; gape-line straight ; nasal
groove long and rather Ande ; nostrils small, linear, sub-basal,
pervious. Legs of moderate length, very slender ; tarsus

72 PLUVIALIN^.

covered with hexagonal scales ; toes rather short, slender, the
outer two connected at the base by a web ; claws rather
short, compressed, slightly arched, obtuse. Wings long and
pointed, the inner secondaries much elongated; tail short,
nearly even.

1. Pluvialis Squatarola. Grey Plover. Bill rather
stout. A very diminutive liind toe. In winter, the upper
parts blackish-giey, spotted with white ; the lower parts
greyish-white, streaked with gTcjish -brown ; axillar feathers
greyish-black. In summer, the upper parts black, spotted
with white ; the breast black.

i2. Plucialis aurea. Golden Plover. Bill rather slender.
In Avinter, the upper parts brownish-black, spotted A^th
yellow ; the lower parts pale, variegated with brown, throat
and abdomen white, as are the axillar leathers. In summer,
the upper parts black, spotted with bright yellow ; fore neck
and breast black.

3. Pluvialis 3Iorinellus. Dotterel Plover. Bill slender.
Inner secondaries extremely elongated. The plumage vari-
ously coloured, but without spots.

GENUS III. CHARADRIUS. KING-PLUVER.

Bill generally much shorter than the head, rather slender,
straight, as broad as high, slightly compressed toward the
end ; upper mandible with the dorsal line straiglit for half
its length, then bulging, or arcuate, the tip rather obtuse ;
gape-line straight ; nasal groove about half the length of the
bill ; nostrils small, linear, sub-basal, pervious. Legs of
moderate length, very slender ; tarsus covered with hexagonal
scales ; toes rather short, slender ; the outer two connected
at the base by a web ; claws rather short, compressed, slightly
arched, slender, rather acute. Wings very long, narrow,
pointed ; the irmer secondaries tapering, extremely elon-
gated; tail of moderate length, or long, rounded, the two
middle feathers somewhat ])oint(!d.

1. Charadrius Iliaticnla. Common liing- Plover. Length
about eight inches ; bill half as long as the head ; A\-ings and
tail of equal length. l'pj)er parts greyish-brown ; two bands.

PLOVERS .\NI) ALLIED SPECIES. 73

a black and a whitt", on the forehead ; a dark brown band
under tlie eye ; a -white rinj^' in( hiding tlie throat, succeeded
by a broader ring of brownish-bhick ; feet orange.

2. Charadrius Cantianus. Kentish llimj-Plover. J^ength
nearly seven inches ; bill more than half th(.' length of the
iiead ; wings shorter than the tail. Upper parts light
brownish-grey ; two bauds, a black and a white, on the fore-
head ; hind part of the head light brownish-red ; loral space
and a band behind the eye black ; the throat and a l)and
crossing the hind neck >vhite ; a patch of black on each side
of the lower part of the neck ; feet dusky.

3. C/uiradrius minor. Little lliny- Plover. Length about
six inches and a half ; bill more than half the length oi tlie
head ; wings shorter than the tail. Tapper parts gi'eyisli-
brown ; two bands, a black and a white, on the forehead ;
hind part of the head light brownish-grey ; a band under the
eye black ; the throat and a band crossing the hind neck
white, succeeded by a brownish-black ring ; feet yelloAvish-
tiesh-colour.

GENIS IV. VANELLUS. LAPWING.

Bill shortish, slender, straight, compressed ; upper man-
dible with the dorsal line straight for two-thirds of its length,
then convexo-declinate to the end, the tip rather obtuse ;
gape-line straight ; nasal gi'oove very long ; nostrils small,
linear, sub-basal, pervious. Legs of moderate length, or long,
very slender ; tarsus anteriorly scutellate ; toes short, slender,
margined, the outer two connected by a basal web ; hind toe
extremely small ; claws short, arched, compressed, slender,
obtuse. Wings long, rounded ; inner secondaries tapering
and much elongated ; tail rather broad, rounded or even.

1. VdtieUus cristatus. Crested Lapwing. A recurved
occipital crest of linear feathers ; upper parts gi-een, lower
white ; fore part of neck black ; tail white, with a broad
black band.

GENUS V. STREPSILAS. TURNSTONE.

Bill a little shorter than the head, slightly bent upwards

74 PLLVIALIN^.

beyond the middle, compressed until towards the end, the tip
depressed and blunted ; gape-line very slightly recurvate ;
nasal gi-oove halt' the length of the bill ; nostrils linear, sub-
basal, pervious. Legs of moderate length, slender ; tarsus
anteriorly scutellate ; toes of moderate length, slightly webbed
at the babe ; hind toe very small ; claws short, compressed,
arched, obtuse. Wings long, narrow, pointed ; inner secon-
daries greatly elongated, and tapering ; tail rather short,
somewhat rounded.

1. Strepsilas Interpres. Collared Turnstone. In winter,
the middle of the back and the loAver parts white ; the fore
neck black ; the upper parts blackish-brown. In summer.,
the u])per parts variegated with black and bro^^^lish-red.

GENUS VI. H.liMATOPrS. OYSTER-CATCHER.

Bill long, shghtly bent upwards beyond tlie middle, pen-
tagonal at the base, where it is covered by a soft skin, which
extends nearly half its length, beyond which it is extremely
C()m])res.sed, in the form of a thin blade, abrupt at the end ;
gape-line slightly ascending beyond the middle ; nasal sinuses
long ; nostrils linear, sub-basal. Legs long, and stout ; tarsus
compressed, covered with hexagonal scales; toes three, short,
spreading, broadly margined, webbed at the base ; claws very
small, narrow, obtuse. Wings long, acute ; inner secondaries
tapering and very elongated; tail rather short, nearly even.

1. Hcematopus Osfralegus, Pied Oystei' -catcher. Bill
vermilion ; feet pale purplish-red ; plumage black and white.

(EDICNEMUS. THICK-KNEE.

The birds which constitute this genus have the appear-
ance of hirge Plovers, hut arc at once distinguishable from
the species of the genera Pluvialis and Charadrius, hy the
greater size of the bill, and especially by the extent to which
it opens. In one species that organ is so large as to give the
bird somewhat of the a])pearance of a Heron. This extension
of the gape-hne might induce us to suspect that the CEdicnemi
belong to the family of Otince, but in other respects their bill
more closely resembles that of the Pluvialina?. The genus
in fact forms the transition from the one family to the other,
and has been referred by authors to both. The body is ovate
and rather full ; the neck rather long ; the head rather large,
compressed, and much rounded above.

Bill generally longer than the head, stout, straight, about
the same height and breadth at the base, compressed in the
rest of its extent, and pointed; upper mandible with the dorsal
Une straight to near the end, when it is gently deflected, the
ridge prominent, convex, generally narrowed, the nasal sinus
large, covered with a bare membrane, the sides sloping and
little convex, unless toward the basal margin, the edges in-
flected, the tip rather acute ; lower mandible with the angle
rather long and of moderate width, the lower outline of the
crura straight or a little deflected, the dorsal line ascending
and somewhat convex, the edges inflected, the tip acute ; the
ga})e-liue commencing under the eyes, at first ascending,
then straight, or slightly recurvate.

Nostrils sub-basal or medial, linear, direct, at the lower
edge of the nasal membrane. Eyes large, Avith the eyelids
partially bare. Aperture of ear large. Legs long and rather

76 CEDICXEMUS. THICK-KNEE.

slender ; tibia bare for two-thirds, and reticnlate ; the tibio-
tarsal joint hirge ; tarsus compressed, reticuhite "svith hexa-
gonal scales ; toes three, short, scutellate, the outer much
longer than the inner, and connected with the third by a
basal web. Claws small, slightly arched, compressed, rather
acute, the inner edge of that of the middle toe a little
dilated.

Plumage ordinary, close, rather blended ; feathers ovato-
oblong on the upper parts, small and oblong on the head
and neck. Wings long and pointed, of twenty-five quills ;
the primaries tapering, the second longest, the first a little
shorter than the third ; the inner secondaries elongated. Tail
graduated, of twelve broad, rounded feathers.

The species of this genus belong to the Old Continent
and New Holland. Although the bill of (Edicnemus longi-
rostris is so much larger than that of (Edicnemus crepitans,
and the colours of the plumage are very different, it is not
apparently expedient to separate these species ; and therefore
I have had an eye upon it in drawing up the above generic
character. The ffidicnemi, it Avould appear, frequent arid
wastes and dry pastures and heaths ; feed on insects, reptiles,
and even small mammalia, probably also on vegetable sub-
stances, especially bulbous roots. One species occurs in
many parts of Europe, and visits the eastern parts of England
in summer.

(EDICNEMUS CREPITANS. THE STONE
TIIICK-KNEE.

OUEAT I'LOVKH. COMMON THK'K-KN'KK. NORFOLK I'LOVEU. 8T0NE PLOVEK.
STONE CUULEW. TUKIv-KNEEU liUSTAKU.

Hill yclloic at the base, black at the end ; feet yellow,
claws brown; plumage of the upper parts light yellowish-red
tinged with grey, longitudinally streaked with blaekish-hrown ;
anterior smaller u'ing-coverts cream-coloured ; tips of seco?i-
dary quills white; primaiies black, the outer tico with a large
white patch about the middle ; tail-feathers variegated, except
the two middle tipped with black ; a band over the eye, loral
sjiace, and an elongated band under the eye, xchitish, then a
light brown band streaked with dusky ; fore part and sides of
neck and breast light yellowish-red streaked with dusky;
throat, middle of the breast, and abdomen white, lower tail-
coverts yellowish-white.

Cliaradrius (Edicncmus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 2.5.3,

Otis (Edicnenuis. I.;ith. Ind. Oniitli. II. 661.

Tliick-kneed Bustard. Mont. Uruitli. Diet.

(Edicneme ciiard. (Edicncmus crepitans. Tcnim. Man. d'Ornith. II. o2.3.

Oidicncmus crepitans. Common Thick-ivnce. P'lem. Brit. Anim. 114.

Common Thick-knee. (Edicncmus crepitans. Sclby, lUustr. Brit. Ornitli.

I. 250.
(Edicncmus crepitans. Common Tliick-kncc. Jcnjnis, Brit. Vert. Anim.

177.
(Edicnemus crepitans. Bonap. Comp. List, 4o.

MvT.E IX Simmer. — Tliis bird, Avhich is about the size of
the AMiimbiel, but proportionally stouter, has the body rather
full, the neck of moderate length, the head rather large,

78 (EDICXEMUS CREPITANS.

compressed, and nuicli rounded above. The bill is much
shorter than the head, stout, straight, as broad as high at the
base, compressed toward the end, pointed ; the upper man-
dible with the dorsal line straight, for half its length, then
gently deflected, the ridge convex, gi-adually narrowed, the
sides convex, the edges sharp and inflected, the tip rather
acute ; the nasal sinus large and covered with a bare mem-
brane ; the lower mandible with the outline of the crura
straight, a little deflected toward their junction, the dorsal
line ascending and somewhat convex, the edges inflected, the
tip acute.

The nostrils medial, linear, in the lower edge of the
membrane. The eyes large, as is the aperture of the ears.
The legs are long and slender ; the tibia bare for a third of
its length, and reticulate ; the tarsus compressed, covered
with hexagonal scales ; the toes short, scutellate, the middle
toe with twenty-five scutella, the outer much longer than
the inner, and connected with the third by a basal mem-
brane, which margins both nearly to the end. The claws
are small, compressed, slightly arched, rather acute.

The plumage is moderately full, soft, blended, on the
upper parts rather compact ; the feathers of the head and
neck small, ovato-oblong, of the other parts broad and
rounded. The wings are long and broad, of twenty-five
quills ; the primaries tapering, the second longest, and ex-
ceeding the first by a (piarter of an inch ; the inner secon-
daries elongated. The tail is rather short, much rounded or
graduated, of twelve broad, rounded feathers.

The bill from the base to the middle is greenish-yellow, to
the end black. The iris yellow, the bare space around and
behind the eye greenish-yellow. The feet are yellow, the
claws blackish-brown. The upper part of the head and the
hind neck are light yellowish-brown, streaked with black.
On the back and wings, the feathers are light brownish -
yellow, each Avith a medial brownish-black streak. The
primary (piills are black, the first and second Avith a large
white patch beyond the miiddle ; the secondary coverts termi-
nallv margined with yellowish-white ; the smaller coverts at
the anterior edge of the humerus brownish-white. The tail-

STONE THICK-KNEE. 79

featlicrs mottled witli l)iowii and \)i\\e reddish-yellow, with
more or less white toward the end, and the tips black, unless
on the two middle feathers. The loral space, and a band
below the eye, white ; below this baud is another of brownish-
red, finely streaked with dusky ; the throat white, the fore
])art and sides of the neck light reddish-yellow, streaked with
dusky, as are the sides and part of the breast ; the rest of
the lower parts white, with slender streaks ; the feathers
under the tail yellowish-white.

Length to end of tail 17^ ; extent of w^ngs 29 ; wing
from flexure ^yj; tail S^ ; bill along the ridge l-pV, along
the edge of lower nuxudible 1|^ ; bare part of tibia 1 ; tarsus
3-jV ; inner toe \f, its claw -j^ ; middle toe 1-^, its claw -^ ;
outer toe 1, its claw -jV.

Female. — The female is similar to the male.

Hahits. — The Stone Thick-knee, which has an extended
geographical distribution, having been found in various parts
of Africa, Asia, and the southern countries of Europe, where
it appears to be in part stationary, visits the middle and
western districts of the latter continent annually, and appears
in England about the beginning of April, sometimes later,
but occasionally much earlier. In Britain it does not spread
to so great an extent as might be expected from its wide
range, but is principally confined to the southern and eastern
counties of England, and is said to be especially abundant
in Norfolk, on which account one of its most popular names
is that of Norfolk Plover. To the northward it has not
been observed beyond Yorkshire, and I am not aware of its
having been met with in any part of Scotland even as a
straggler, although both the Bustards have been seen there.
It is not quite a stranger to Ireland, however, as is shcAvn by
Mr. Thompson, in his very interesting work on the Birds of
that country. Its mode of life resembles that of the birds
just named, as well as of the larger Plovers, insomuch that
it has by some been considered a Bustard, and by others a
Plover. It frequents waste lauds, commons, rabbit-warrens,
heaths, and large cultivated fields, keeping at first in small

80 (EDICNEMUS CREPIT.\NS.

flocks, which soon separate, when the different pairs make
arrangements for the increase of the tribe. The nest is a
sHght hollow in an exposed place, on the bare gi-onnd or
tnrf, or among gravel or pebbles. The eggs, generally two,
are ovate, two inches in length, an inch and a half in breadth,
greyish-yellow, or pale greyish-brown, spotted, dotted, and
streaked with dark-brown and purplish-grey. In form and
colour they more nearly resemble those of the Oyster-catcher
than of any other liritish bird. The young, covered with
greyish down clouded with brown, run immediately after
birth, and conceal themselves by sitting close on the ground.

This bird is shy and suspicious, seldom allowing one to
approach within shooting distance. It runs with great
rapidity, and has a strong, quick flight, performed by regular
beats of its expanded wings. Its cry is a loud clear whistle,
somewhat like that of the Golden Plover, and may often be
heard at night by those intruding on its haunts. The great
size of its eyes seems to adapt it for seeking its food in the
dusk and by moonlight, in Avhich respect it resembles the
plovers. Insects of various kinds, especially coleoptera, snails,
slugs, and worms, are the objects on which it principally
subsists ; but it is said also to devour reptiles and small
quadrupeds. After the breeding season, they collect into
small flocks, and in the end of October take their departure.

!Mr. Salmon, in his Notice respecting the arrival of Mi-
gratory Bu'ds in the neighbourhood of Thetford in Norfolk,
{Mag. of Nat. Hist. vol. ix. p. 520), gives the following
account of the present species: — "The Norfolk Plover,
(Edicnemus crepitans Temm., is very numerously distributed
over all our warrens and fallow lands, during the breeding
season, which commences about the second week in April ;
the female depositing her pair of eggs upon the bare gi-ound,
without any nest whatever. It is generally su])p()sed that
the males take no part in the labour of incubation : this, I
suspect, is not the case. Wishing to procure for a friend a
few specimens in their breeding plumage, I employed a boy
to take them for me. This he did by ensnaring them on the
nest ; and the result was, that all those he caught during
the day proved, upon dissection, to be males. They assemble

STONE THICK-KNEE. 81

in flocks previously to their dcparturo, which is usimlly by
the <;ii(l of Octoht'r; but, shouhl the weather continue open,
;i few will remain to a much later period. I started one as
late as the 9th of December, in the winter of 1834."

The following account of the habits of this l)ir(l, as ob-
served in France, will serve to render its history somewhat
complete : — " The Great Plover, commonly called the Land
Curlew, is tin; bird that is heard in the country, in the
evening, in summer and the beginning of autumn, and which
seems incessantly to repeat the Avord cotirlis, or rather tarlui,
beginning its cries at sunset, and continuing them all night.
This bird is of the Plover genus, and has no other relation
to the Curlews than the cry which it utters, and which has
obtained for it the name of Land Curlew. This large plover
is of the size of a chicken that luis attained half its growth,
and measures sixteen inches in length, twenty-six inches and
a half in extent of wings. The Land Curlews or Great
Plovers arrive pretty early in spring. They settle on the
dry grounds, filled with stones, among fallows and stubbles,
preferring low hills and sloping fields. Crickets, grass-
hoppers, and other insects form part of their food. During
the day these birds keep themselves concealed and couched
on the gTound ; but at sunset they put themselves in action,
and are then heard to commence their cries, which they do
not cease to repeat during the fine summer nights. When
surprised they run with extreme speed ; their flight is low,
and not very long ; they are very wild birds, not easily made
up to. The female lays two, or at most three eggs, in the
midst of pebbles or giMvel, in some depression of the ground,
or some hollow which these birds have formed by scraping.
It is said that they sometimes have two broods in the year,
that incubation continues for a month, and that the growth
of the feathers is slow in the young. In fact they are
nearly full-grown before they can fly, their wing-feathers
not having yet sprouted ; but they run in this state with
great lightness ; and at this age appear as stupid as
timid. In November the Land Curlews set out on their
journey to warmer climates, and it appears that even in
summer they do not advance far northward. As an article

82 OIDICNEMUS CREPITANS.

of food, their flesh is hehl in moderate estimation." — Vai-
mont Bo77iarc.

YorxG. — According to M. Temminck, " the young have
the colours less decided, and are distinguished at once by the
very enlarged form of the upper part of the tarsus, and the
great size of the joint which corresponds to the knee in
quadrupeds. This form of the tarsus is peculiar to the
young of the year of all the species of birds that have long
slender legs, but is particularly remarkable in the young
(Edicnemes."

Remarks. — What M. Temminck considers to be the knee
is, correctly speaking, the ancle. The generic name Tliick-
knee is therefore erroneous ; but as Thick-ancle, the true
name, sounds strangely, and is more applicable to a Pelican
or Penguin, I must leave matters in this respect as I have
found them.

PLUVIALIS. PLOVEE.

It having been considered necessary to break up the
Linntcan genus Charadrius, Avhich, constituted as it was,
woukl now contain a vast number of species, difFi'ring in
many respects from eacli other, ahnost every succeeding
author who has treated of the group has proposed an arrange-
nu'ut of his own. To exphiin all the variations thus intro-
duced, would be to enter into details probably not intelligible
to every reader. I shall therefore confine myself to a few
remarks. If we take our common Golden Plover, Chara-
drius I'luvialis of Linnaeus, as typical, and place around it
the species which are most nearly allied, we should first
select Charadrius marmoratus of Waglcr, and, with little less
hesitation, Tringa helvetica of Linnaeus, which, although
haWng a stouter bill, and a mockery of a hind toe, is ex-
tremely similar. These birds have the bill nearly as long as
the head, the wings acuminate, the tail short and nearly
even, the plumage mottled, and the feet rather long. Chara-
diius Morinellus, which comes very near to them, differs in
having the inner secondaries more elongated, and the plumage
coloured in masses, bands, and streaks. Charachius Hiati-
cula, semipalmatus, melodus, Cantianus, minor, and Wilsonii,
fonn a group very intimately allied in form and colouring,
smaller than the Golden Plover, with shorter neck and legs,
and longer and niore rounded tail. One has the bill slender
and but half the length of the head, in another it is very
stout, and as long as the head ; the tail in one is short, in
another long, and in a third intermediate. If we take such
characters as distinctive of genera, we shall scarcely find
three species agreeing together. Then come birds similar in
form to a great extent, but yet differing, some having mem-
branous wattles at the base of the bill, one with a bill as

84 PLUVIALIS. PLOVER.

Stout as a Heron's, another -with long spurs on its wings,
some with scutella on the tarsus, and some with scales only,
some with four toes even, the wings and tail also varying.
Now, we cannot reasonably group all these birds into a
single genus, as AVagler has done ; nor, on the other hand,
can Ave take very minute characters of Avhich to form genera,
otherwise, in most cases, each species will constitute a genus.
But, acting upon the principle of associating species evidently
related, so as to form groups of moderate extent, and capable
of being intellig-ibly defined, we may, taking the first species
described by Linna?us, Charadrius Hiaticula, and adding to
it all those allied in fomi, colours, and habits, constitute a
geniis, to which some give the name ^gialites, proposed by
Brehm, others Hiaticula. Those larger species, with mottled
or streaked plumage, somewhat longer legs and neck, in-
cluding the Golden Plover, may form a genus to which Ave
might leave the Linnsean name Charadrius, though Ave should
prefer that of PluAialis, employed by Brisson, Ray, and many
other Avriters. The still larger birds Avith longer and stouter
legs, broader AAings, rounder heads, and stronger bills, have
by most recent authors been referred to the genus CEdic-
nemus.

The Plovers, thus restricted, form a genus of moderate
extent, and of Avhich three species occur in Britain. They
are all of rather small size, Avith the body ovate and rather
full ; the neck of moderate length ; the head rather small,
roundish, somewhat compressed, and much rounded above.

Bill nearly as long as the head, straight, rather slender,
compressed; upper mandible Avitli the dorsal Une straight
and slightly declinate for tAvo-thirds of its length, then
bulging a little, or arcuate to the end, the nasal grooA-e long
and rather Avide, the edges slightly inflected, the tip narroAv,
but rather obtuse ; loAver mandible AAith the angle rather
long and narroAv, the dorsal line ascending and slightly
convex, the sides concave at the base, convex toward the
end, the edges inflected, the tip narroAV, but rather blunt ;
the gape-line straight. Mouth very narrow, as is the palate,
on Avhich are tAvo longitudinal ridges, and anteriorly a double
series of large papilhv. Tongue rather long, very narrow.

PLUVIALIS. rLOVI'K. 85

cmarginate and papillate at tlu' base, deeply eliaiiiielled
above, sub- trigonal, pointed. (l'jSophaj>us narrow, without
dilatation ; proventriculus small, with a ])elt of oblong- ghm-
dules. Stoniaeh a rather large muscular gizzard, of an ellip-
tical compressed form, with strong lateral muscles, radiated
tendons, and dense longitudinally rugous epithelium. In-
testine long, and narrow ; cwca small, cylindrical, and very
narrow.

Nostrils small, linear, pervious, sub-basal, near the
margin. Eyes large and full ; both eyelids densely feathered.
Aperture of ear rather large, roundish. Feet of moderate
length, very slender ; the tibia long, bare for nearly a fourth ;
tarsus of ordinary length, anteriorly and laterally covered
with numerous hexagonal scales. Toes rather short and
slender, three before, in one instance a rudimentary hind
toe, the third and fourth connected at the base by a web, all
margined and with numerous narrow scutclla. Claws rather
short, compressed, slightly arched, slender, obtuse.

Plumage ordinary, close, rather blended ; feathers oblong.
Wings long and jjointed, of twenty-five quills ; the primaries
tapering, the first longest, the rest rapidly diminishing ; the
outer secondaries short, incurved, and obliquely rounded, the
inner tapering and much elongated. Tail straight, slightly
arched at the base, rather broad, nearly even, of twelve
feathers, of which the two middle are somewhat pointed.

The species of this genus are very widely distributed, and
one of them is common to both continents. They form large
flocks after the breeding season, and generally betake them-
selves in cold weather to the shores of the sea or their
vicinity. They run with celerity, have a rapid flight, and
emit a loud shrill whistle, sometimes modulated. Their food
consists of coleopterous and other insects, worms, mollusca,
small Crustacea, and sometimes berries. The nest is a slight
hollow in the ground ; the eggs four, pyrifoiin, extremely
large, and spotted or clouded. The young run about imme-
diately after birth, and conceal themselves by squatting.
The flesh of these birds is excellent, and their eggs delicious.
One species is very common in Britain, another breeds there
in small numbers, and the third is a winter visitant.

PLUVIALIS SQUATAROLA. THE GREY PLOVER.

BLACK-BELLIED PLOVER. GREY SANDPIPEIR. BULL-HEAD.

Fio. 9.

Tringa Squatarola. Linn. Syst. Nat. T. 2.52. Adult in winter.

Triiifrn helvetica. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 250. Adult in summer.

Tringa Squatarola. Lath. Ind. Omith. IL 729. Adult in winter.

Tringa helvetica. Lath.Ind.Omith.il 718. Adult in summer.

Grey Sandpiper. ^lont. Omith. Diet.

Vanneau Pluvicr. Vanellus mclanogaster. Temm. ^lan. d'Omith. IT. -547.

Squatarola cincrea. Flem. Brit. Anim. 111.

Bastard or Grey Plover. Squatarola cinerea. Sclb. lUust. Brit. Oraitli.

II. 227.
Vanellus griscus. Gray Plover. Jen. Brit. Vert. Anini. ISl.
Scjuatarola Helvetica. Bonap. Comp. List, 46.

Bill rather stout, nearly as long as the head; a rrri/
(Ihniiuitive hind toe. In winter, the upper parts hlarJxish-
(jrey, spotted loith ichitc; the chcelis, ncch, breast, and sides

GIIEY PLOVEK. 87

(jrri/ish-u-hite, streaked vith (jreyislt-hyoicit ; the. axillar
feathers (jreyish-hlack. In summer, the tipper ^>«/7s black,
spotted icith xchite ; the fore- neck, breast, and sid'-s black;
the forehead, a line over the eije, the abdomen, and leys white.
Yoany dusky-yrey above, spotted tcifh white and yellow,
f/reyish-ichite beneath, the fore-neck and sides streaked with
brownish-yrey. %

Male in Winter. — The similarity of the Grey and
Golden Plovers is not less striking than that of the Golden
Plover and the exotic species named marmorata. The Grey
is considerably larger then the Golden, hut has the same
proportions, is coloured in the same manner, and undergoes
the same seasonal changes. It has a stouter hill, however,
and is furnished with an insignificant hind toe. These
trilling differences some have held sufficient to constitute a
genus, which they have named Squatarola, while others,
overlooking the differently formed wing, have referred it to
the genus Vanellus. The body is ovate and moderately full ;
the head of ordinary size, roundish, somewhat compressed,
witli the forehead rounded. The bill is almost as long as the
head, straight, compressed, rather stout ; the upper mandible
with the dorsal line straight and slightly declinate for more
than half its length, then convex, the ridge convex, the nasal
groove extending beyond the middle, the edges sharp and
direct, the tip narrow but obtuse ; the lower mandible with
the angle narrow, the outline of the crura slightly concave,
tlie dorsal line ascending and slightly convex, the edges
sharp and direct, involute toward the tip, which is rather
acute ; the gape-line straight.

The mouth narrow ; the palate with a double tow of
pa])ilho ant(>riorly. The tongue is an inch in length, slender,
emarginate and papillate at the base, grooved above, tapering
to a thin horny point. The (Ksophagus is five inches and a
quarter in length, about half-an-inch in width ; the proven-
triculus eight-twelfths broad, its glandules oblong, forming a
belt eight-twelfths in breadth. The stomach is a strong
gizzard, of an irregular roundish fonn, an inch and a quarter
in breadth, with thick lateral muscles, large radiating ten-

88 PLUVIALIS SQUATAROLA.

dons, and den.se, thin, longitudinally ru<;ous opitluliuni. The
intestine is twenty-eijj;ht inches in length, from three-twelfths
to two-twelfths in width ; the ca*ca tAvo inches and a qnarter
in length, their greatest width two-twelfths; the rectum two
inches and a half in length.

The nostrils are linear-oblong, narrower before, three-
twelfths of an inch long. The eyes large, their aperture
three and a half twelfths in diameter. That of the ear three-
twelfths. The feet are of moderate length, slender ; the
tibia bare for three-fourths of an inch ; the tarsus roundish,
covered with hexagonal scales, and thus differing from that
of the Lapwings. There is an exceedingly diminutive hind
toe, with five scutella, and a minute claw. The fore toes are
connected by membranes of considerable extent, the outer
extending as far as the second joint ; the inner toe a little
shorter than the outer, and with sixteen scutella, the middle
toe with thirty, the fourth wdth twenty-six. The claws are
small, slightly arched, slender, and rather acute ; that of the
hind toe more curved, and so small as scarcely to be observed.

The plumage is close, soft, blended, and slightly glossed ;
the feathers broad and rounded. The wings are long and
pointed, with twenty-six quills ; the primaries tapering and
narrow, the first longest, the second little shorter, the rest
rapidly decreasing; the outer secondaries short, broad,
obliquely rounded, and incurved, the inner elongated and
tai)ering. The tail is rather short, and slightly rounded, of
twelve rounded feathers.

The bill is black ; the iris dusky ; the feet greyish-black.
The upper parts are blackish-grey, variegated with very
nimierous Avhite spots, arranged along the margins of the
feathers, those on the rump tinged with yellow. The upper
tail-coverts are white, with some dusky bars towards the
end ; and the tail is barred with dusky and white, the greater
part of the inner webs of the four lateral feathers being of the
latter colour. The ])rimary (juills and their coverts are
chocolate-brown, slightly margined at the end, and inter-
nally, with greyish-white ; the shafts of the primaries white
toward the end ; the outer secondaries similar, white at the
base, that colour enlarging inwards ; the elongated inner

GllEY PLOVER. «9

socoiul lilies like the leiithcvs of the back. The sides of ihe
liead, the neck all round, the breast and sides of the body
greyish-white, streaked with l)r()wnisli-f4rey ; the alxlonien,
lower tail-coverts, and tibial feathers white. The lower
wing-coverts are also Avhite, the larger greyish-white ; but
the axillar are greyish-black.

Length to end of tail 11 ',4 inches; extent of wings 25;
wing from flexure 1-pj ; tail S^ ; hill along the ridge l-^V,
along the edge of lower mandible 1^; bare part of tibia f ;
tarsus l-fi-; fillet toe -3V, its claw ^j^; second toe -|4, its
claw yV; third toe l-jV, its claw -^; fourth toe \^, its
claw -j^.

Femai.k in Winter. — The female is similar to the male,
but smaller.

Length to end of tail 11|^ inches ; extent of wings 23f ;
wing from flexure 7yL; tail S^\; bill along the ridge 1,V,
along the edge of lower mandible Ij^^^; tarsus 1,V; middle
toe and claw 1 j^.^ .

Variations. — Individuals vary considerably in size, and
more especially in tlie thickness of the bill, which is some-
times very remarkable. Many of the spots on the back and
wings are often yellow, of as bright a tint as in the Golden
mover.

Changes of Plumac;e. — In spring a partial moult takes
place, in consequence of which the lower parts become black.
The general moult happens in autumn, and is not completed
until November.

Male ix Summer. — Not having met with a specimen
killed in Britain in its complete summer pUmiage, I have
recourse to one shot at " Igloolik, 2ord June, 1823." The
bill and feet are black. The upper part of the head, the
occiput, and the back part of the neck above, are ash-j^Tcy,
mottled with pale brown. The lower part of the neck, the
back, the scapulars, and the w-ing-coverts, are transverely
spotted with white and brownish-black, -with irregular patches

90 PLUVIALIS SQUATAROLA.

of pale yellowisli-brown, tlie end of all the feathers white,
and the middle generally dark. The primaries are liver-
brown, the shafts more or less white, all except the outer
four marked with white on the middle and outer webs
towards the base ; the inner webs of all white, unless toward
the end. The secondaries are brownish-fz^rey, ti])ped with
white ; the inner pale yellowish-brown, with alternate spots
of white and black along the edge. The upper tail-coverts
are white, with a few brown marks. The tail-feathers barred
with white and dark brown, the latter diminishing laterally,
so that the extreme feathers are nearly Avhite. The forehead
and a line extending from thence along the side of the neck
and breast, to the axillaries, white. The lower surface of
the wings, the tibia?, the abdomen, and the lower tail-coverts,
pure white ; the immediate tail-coverts with a few brown
spots near the tips. The rest of the lower surfoce, that is,
the throat, neck, breast, axillaries, and anterior part of the
abdomen, brownish-black.

Length to end of tail \2 inches ; bill along the ridge I5-;
tarsus 1^; middle toe 1^, its claw ^\.

Female in Summer. — The female has the colours lighter.
There is more pale yellowish-brown on the upper surface,
less brownish-black ; the ends of the feathers, instead of
being white, are ash-gi-ey ; the lateral white line along the
neck is sprinkled with brown ; the throat is mixed with
white ; the brownish-black of the breast is lighter, and mixed
with white ; the axillaries only being as dark as in the male.

Length to end of tail II5- inches; bill 1^; tarsus 1|- ;
middle toe 1^.

Ha HITS. — The Grey Plover, which is pretty generally
distributed on the Continent of Euroi)e, and is plentiful in
some parts of North America, seems to be with us merely
an annual visitor, api)earing in small flocks in autumn and
spring, chielly along the coast, where it frequents the muddy
and sandy beaches, Avhich it searches in the manner of the
Golden Tlover and Hinged Sand Tlover, for worms, insects,
and small marine animals. Many individuals remain all

GKEY PLOVER. 91

Aviiitor with us. Thus I have obtained specinieus in J)cccmber
and January, as well as in spring. In that season, however,
it seems to be more numerous in Eu<;land than in Scotland,
although nowhere common. Mr. Yarrell says he has " occa-
sionally obtained a specimen in the London market in the
full black plumage at the end of ^Nlay ;" Mr. Sell)y, too, has
sometimes met with one or two on the Fern Islands in June,
but could never detect any of their young ; and Dr. Fleming
says he has " reason to believe that it breeds in the high
grounds of the Mearns." I have not been able to find any
evidence of its breeding there, or in any part of Aberdeen-
shire ; though it visits the coasts of the latter county in
autumn.

From the polar regions it extends to Japan, and even to
New Guinea and Java. It has been found in Bengal and at
the C-ape of Good Hope, as well as in Egypt, Italy, Spain,
France, Holland, Germany, and Hussia. It is remarkable
that the individuals which reside in the warmer climates
appear to retain the same colours in summer as in winter.
M. Temminck says, " those which come from the Isles of
Sunda and New Guinea are generally much smaller, and,
although received in great number and killed at different
periods of the year, there has not come to us a single indi-
vidual clothed in the beautiful summer plumage ; all bearing
the winter livery, precisely similar to that of our individuals
killed in Europe." Perhaps these small-sized individuals
may be of a distinct species, those analogous supposed indi-
viduals of the Golden l^lover having been found to be spe-
cifically different. I have a specimen of the Grey Plover in
winter plumage from Bengal, but it is fully equal to our
northern individuals. In America, the species is also Avidely
dispersed. Dr. Richardson remarks that " it breeds in open
grounds fi'om Pennsylvania to the northern extremity of the
continent ;" Mr. Audubon, who traced it from the Gulf of
Mexico to Labrador, states that in winter most of the mi-
grating individuals pass southward beyond the limits of the
United States ; but that some spend the summer months in
the mountainous parts of Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Con-
necticut, where thev breed. " The nest is merely a slight

92 PLUVIALIS SQUATAROLA.

hollow, with a few blades of gras.s. The eggs are four, an
inch and • seven-and-a-half-eighths in length, an inch and
three-eighths in their greatest breadth ; their ground colour
yellowislx-white, tinged with olivaceous, and pretty generally
covered with blotches and dots of liglit brown and pale
purple, the markings being more abundant toward the small
end. When sitting these birds will remain until tliey are
almost trodden upon. On being started, they fly off a few
yards, alight running, and use all the artifices employed on
such occasions to induce the intruder to set out in pursuit.
The young leave the nest almost immediately after they are
hatched, and when two or three weeks old, run with great
celerity, and squat in perfect silence Avhen apprehensive of
danger. When they are able to fly, several families unite,
and betake themselves to the sea-shore, where other flocks
gradually arrive, until, at length, on the approach of cold
weather, almost all of them begin to move southward. In
their habits they are more maritime than the Golden Plovers,
Avliich, when migrating, generally advance over the land.
The flight of this bird is swift, strong, and Avell sustained.
When roaming over large sand-bars, they move in compact
bodies, whirling round, and suddenly veering, so as alter-
nately to exhibit their upper and lower parts. At this time
old and young are intermixed, and many of the former have
lost the black so conspicuous on the neck and breast in
summer. During winter, or as long as they frequent the
sea-shore, they feed on marine insects, worms, and small
shell-fish ; and when they are in the interior, on giasshoppers
and other insects, as Avell as berries of various kinds, on
which they fatten so as to become tolerably good eating. This
species is known in Pennsylvania by the name of Whistling
Field Plover, suggested by the loud and modulated cries
which it emits during the love season."

Young. — When about a week old, ]\rr. Audubon has
represented the yoiuig as having the bill and feet dull
greenish-brown ; the iris brown ; the general colour of the
downy covering pah^ brownish-yellow, mottled with dusky ;
a whitisli ring round the eye ; the tail with a black bund.

GREY PLOVKR. 93

the rump whitish, the primary quills dusky, the outer edges
of the secomlarics whitish. When fledged, he says the bill
is greyish-black, the feet bluish-grey ; the upjjcr parts
browiiish-black, spotted with white, some of the spots
yellow ; the wiugs ami tail as iu the adult, but the latter
tinged with grey, and having eight dark bars on all the
feathers ; the fore part and sides of the neck, and the sides
of the body, greyish-white, mottled with brownish-grey ;
the axillary feathers brownish-black; the rest of the lower
parts white.

Remarks. — By more recent writers this bird is variously
named Squatarola cinerea, iSquatarola giisea, VaneUus mela-
nogaster, and Vanellus griseus. liut Squatarola, being a
barbarous name, is scarcely admissible. Moreover the bird
is a riover, in despite of its nulimentary hind toe. As to
Vanellus, it can be referred to that genus only by those who
consider a hind toe as its most essential characteristic, and
overlook the reticulation of the tarsus, and the different form
of the wing. In naming it Pluvialis Squatarola I have in-
vented nothing, the former being the old generic name
appplied to the group to Avhich it belongs, and the latter
being the specific appellation used by Linna}us and others.
Literally translated, Pluvialis is Plover, and thus the nomen-
clature is so far perfect. Is it not strange that they who
make it a Squatarola in mongrel Latin, should call it a
Plover in plain English, thus giving it the same generic
name that they apply to birds of what they tell us is quite a
different genus ?

In another individual, a male, examined in Edinburgh,
in January, 1841, the measurement of the digestive organs
•were as follows : — Tongue ten-twelfths long ; oesophagus four
inches and a half; belt of glandules ten-twelfths; stomach
an inch and five-twelfths long, an inch and two-twelfths in
breadth ; intestine two feet eleven inches in length ; coeca
three inches and a quarter ; rectum two inches. The stomach
■was moderately distended with slender blades of gi-ecn ulvae,
anion": which were a few small univalve shells and some
bits of quartz.

PLUVIALIS AUREA. THE GOLDEN PLOVER.

YELLOW PLOVEK. WHISTLING TLOVER, GREY PLOVER. FEAD.\G.

Fio. 10.

Charadrius Pluvialis. Linn. Syst. Xat. I. 254.

Charadrius apricarius. Linn. Syst. Xat. I. 254.

Charadriua Pluvialis. Lath. Ind. Om. IL 740. Adult in winter.

Charadrius apricarius. Lath. Ind, Orn. II. 742. Adult in summer.

Golden Plover. Mont. Ornith. Diet.

Pluvier dorc. Charadrius Pluvialis. Temm. Man. d'Orn, II. 535.

Charadrius Pluvialis. Green Plover. Flcm. Brit. Anim. 113.

Golden Plover. Charadrius Pluvialis. .Sclb. Illustr. Brit. Ornith. II. 231.

Charadrius plu\iali3. Golden Plover. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 177.

Charadrius Pluvialis. Bonap. Comp. List, 45.

In it'inter, the tipper parts hroicnish-hlack, sj)ottcd icith
yelloWy the cheeks, neck, and fore part of the breast greyish,
variegated with brown; the throat and abdomen tchifc, as are
the axillar feathers. In summer, the upper parts black,
spotted with bright tjelloic ; the fore neck and breast black;
the forehead, a line over the eye, a band bordering the back
of the loicer parts, and the lower tail-coccrts tchite.

GOLDEN PLOVER. 95

!Male.— The Gulden riover is one of the most beiiutitul
and probably the best known species of its family. In size
it is inferior to the La])winf;-, whieli it resembles in form, its
body bein<^ ovate and rather full, its head of moderate size,
oblong, somewhat com])ressed, the forehead rounded. The
bill is shorter than the head, straight, eompressed ; the u])per
mandible with the dorsal line straight and slightly deelinate
for two-thirds of its length, then convex, the sides sloping at
the base, convex towards the end, the edges soft and in-
clinate, the tip narrow and rather blunt j the lower mandible
with the angle narrow, the dorsal line ascending and slightly
convex, the tip rather acute. The nasal gi-oove is bare, and
extends along two-thirds of the length of the mandible.

The nostrils are linear, pervious, sub-basal, three-twelfths
of an inch long. The eyes are large, their aperture four-
and a-half-twelfths in diameter. That of the ear of moderate
size, being three-twelfths across. The feet are of moderate
length, slender ; the tibia bare for about half-an-inch ; the
tarsus of moderate length, rather compressed, covered all
rovmd with hexagonal scales ; the inner toe considerably
shorter than the outer, with eighteen scutella ; the middle
toe with twenty-five; the outer with twenty. The claws are
small, slightly arched, compressed, slender, obtuse.

The plumage is soft, blended, slightly glossed ; the
feathers generally oblong and obtuse. The wings arc long
and pointed ; the quills twenty-six ; the primaries tapering,
the first longest, the second a little shorter, the rest rapidly
graduated ; the outer secondaries are short, broad, obliquely
rounded, and inflected, the inner elongated and tapering.
The tail is rather short, and slightly rounded.

The bill is black ; the iris brown ; the feet bluish-grey.
The upper parts are brownish-black, variegated with very
numerous yellow spots arranged along the margins of the
feathers. The upper tail-coverts are baiTed with brown and
yellow; the tail-feathers gi-eyish -brown, barred with yellowish-
white, the inner webs of the four lateral but faintly barred.
The wings are chocolate-brown, the smaller coverts, secon-
dary coverts, and inner secondaries spotted like the back ;
the primary coverts, primaries and outer secondaries plain.

96 PLUVIALIS AUREA.

slightly tip])e(l and margined -with gi-eyisli-whito, and the
shafts of the primaries white toward the end. The sides of
the head, the neck all round, breast and sides of the body
are light grey, spotted and streaked with brownish-gi-ey ; the
throat, abdomen, and axillar feathers white.

Length to end of tail lOf inches ; extent of wings 2'2^ ;
wing from flexure 7^; tail of.-,; bill along the ridge 1, along
the edge of lower mandible 1 ^\ ; tarsus 1 ^\ ; inner toe } ^ ,
its claw ^\; middle toe 1,'-.^, its claw ,':, ; outer toe },', , its
claw ^\,.

Female. — The female is precisely similar to the male,
and is very little inferior in size.

Length to end of tail 10 j inches ; extent of wings 22 ;
Aving from flexure 7 ^\ ; tail 3 j-.^ ; bill along the ridge { I ;
tarsus 1 /j ; middle toe 1 ,^ , its claw j-\ .

Variations. — The deviations from the ordinary colouring
observable in the winter plumage are generally not very
remarkable. Individuals, however, sometimes occur that
have the brown and black tints pale, and the yellow nearly
white. I have seen one, an adult female, having no yellow
spots, all the markings being greyish-white. The late Mr.
Carfrae, preserver of animals in Edinburgh, had a very
beautifid cream-coloui-ed specimen, faintly spotted with pale
yellow. Individuals variously patched with wliite are also
sometimes, though rarely, met with.

Change of Plumage. — The regular annual moult takes
place in September and October, and is geuorally cum})leted
by the beginning of November. The partial moult com-
mences by the middle of February, and is completed by tlu'
middle of ^Liy. In the outer Hebrides, where, in my youth,
I used to shoot a good deal on the moors, I observed that
tlie males had their black livery complete by Whitsunday,
—old style.

Male in Summf.k. — The u])per part of the head, the fore
part of the back, and the scapulars, are beautifully variegated

GOLDEN PLOVER. 97

with browiiish-lilack imd briglit yellow, as in wintor ; tho
hind part of the buck, the upper tail-coverts, and the tail-
feathers, greyish-brown, variegated Avith paler yellow, the
lateral tail-feathers barred with white. The middle of the
fore-neck and breast is brownish-black, that colour bordered
with white ; the sides of the neck and body variegated with
greyish-yellow and brown ; the forehead, a band over the
eye, the chin, the abdomen, white, as are the axillar feathers;
the lower wing-coverts light grey ; the lower tail-coverts
white, Avith their outer Avcbs and tips banded with brown
and yellow.

Femat.k in Summku. — The female differs from the male
only in having less black on the lower parts.

Hahits. — Many a time and oft, in the days of my youth,
when the cares of life were few, and the spirits expansile,
and often too in later years, when I have made a temporary
escape to the wilderness, to breathe an atmosphere untainted
by the effluvia of cities, and ponder in silence on the Avonders
of creative power, have I stood on the high moor, and
listened to the mellow notes of the Plover, that seemed to
come from the grey slopes of the neighbouring hills. Except
the soft note of the Ring-Plover, I knoAV none so pleasing
from the Grallatorial tribes. Amid the wild scenery of the
rugged hills and sedgy valleys, it comes gently and soothingly
on the car, and you feel, Avithout being altogether conscious
of its poAver, that it soothes the troubled mind, as Avater
cools the burning brow. Hoav unlike the shriek of the
Heron — but Avhy should Ave think of it, for it reminds us of
the cracked and creaking voice of some village beldame of
the Saxon race. The clear gentle tones of the Celtic maiden
could not be more pleasant to any one, or perhaps much
more Avelcome to her lover, than the summer note of the
Golden Plover to the lover of birds and of natiire. As you
listen to it, noAv distant, noAV nearer, and near, and see the
birds Avith short flights approaching as if to greet you, though
in reality Avith more fear than confidence, with anxiety and
apprehension, the bright smishine that glances on their

98 PLU\1ALIS AUREA.

jetty breasts is faintly obscured by tlie "svliitc vapours that
have crept up from the western valley, and presently all
around us is suffused witli an opaline lij;bt, into the conhnes
of which a bird is dimly seen to advance, then another, and
a third. Who could represent the scene on canvas or card ?
— a hollow hemispliere of Avhite shinintj mist, on which are
depicted two dark human figures, their heads surrounded
with a radiant halo, and these black-breasted Golden Plovers,
magnified to twice their natural size, and gazing upon us,
each from its mossy tuft. It is as if two mortals had a con-
ference on the heath with three celestial messengers — and so
they have. Presently a breeze rolls away the mist, and
discloses a number of those watchful sentinels, each on his
mound of faded moss, and all emitting their mellow cries the
moment Ave offer to advance. Thev are males, whose mates
are brooding over their eggs, or leading their down-clad and
toddling chicks among the to them pleasant peat-bogs that
intervene between the high banks, clad with luxuriant heath,
not yet recovered from the effects of the Avinter frosts, and
little raeadoAvs of cotton-grass, Avhite as the snoAv-Avreaths
that lie on the distant hill. Hoav prettily they run over the
grey moss and lichens, their little feet tAvinkling, and their
full bright and soft eyes gleaming, as they commence their
attempts to entice us aAvay from their chosen retreats. In
the midst of them alight some tiny things, black-breasted
too, Avith reddish backs and black nebs, and neat pointed
wings, Avhich they stretch right up, and then fold by their
sides. Tlicse are Plovers' Pages, Avhich also have their nests
on the moor. The mist rolls sloAvly aAvay, and is ascending
in doAvny flakes the steep side of the corry, whence comes
suddenly on the ear the loud scream of the CurlcAv, — pleasing
too, but to the deer startling. The fcAver of these birds on
the moors after the 12th of August, the better for the deer-
stalker ; but that day is far distant. Three harts that lay
ruminating among the long heath, half-dosing, and flapping
RAvay tlie flies Avith their long ears, start on their feet ; they
stretch their sinewy limbs, and curve up their backs, and,
having inspected us, and judged us not trustAvorthy, they
move off at a gentle pace, tossing their antlered heads, and

GOLDEN PLOVER. 99

pursue the retreating- mist, in which they will jjnseiitly
vanish from our sight. We liave no }^uns, or pistols, and
need none. Tiie lover of birds does not kill all he meets
with ; though there are those who i)rofess to be in raptures
with Ornithology, and estimate their proj^ress in it by the
extent of their lists of killed and wounded, liut there are
all sorts of combinations in human nature, and some natu-
ralists are most murderous, while otluns are so gentle as t(j
grieve when they have heedlessly trampled on a mushroom.
We must now, however, descend i'rom the hill, and essay a
plain narrative.

The Golden Plover is generally distributed over 15ritain
in the winter season, when it frequents the open })lains and
ploughed fields so long as the weather remains mild, but
betakes itself to the sea-shore and its vicinity when there is
frost. In numy parts of Scotland, but especially in the
Northern Highlands, and in the Hebrides, it is a very common
bird. When the weather begins to improve towards the end
of spring, the Plovers may be seen flying over the shores or
the fields in their neighbourhood, at a great height, in loose
flocks, which now extend into a wide front, now form
irregular angular lines, move with a quiet and regular flight,
frequently emitting their peculiar soft notes, and at times
uttering a singular cry, somewhat resembling the syllables
courlic-wec. These flocks are leaving their Avinter haunts,
and returning to the inland moors, over which they disperse
in pairs.

In the beginning of ^lay, should you traverse one of the
dreary heaths, you will often hear the plaintive cry of the
Plover, mingling, perhaps, with the feeble cheep of the
Dunlin, or the loud scream of the CurleAv. Before you have
advanced to any considerable distance, there may come up
and alight on some mossy knoll beside you, a male, clad in
his beautiful summer vesture of black and green. You may
approach him within ten paces if you are inclined, and in
some districts it would be easy for one to shoot many dozens
of them in a day at this season. After incubation has com-
menced, the females seldom make their appearance on such
occasions. Whether the males assist their mates at that

100 PLU^^ALIS aurea.

time or not, they certainly do not forsake them. The nest
is a sli<>ht hollow in a tuft of moss, or on a dry place among
the heath, irregularly strewed with fragments of withered
plants. The eggs, of Avhich the full nuniher is four, are
placed, as usual in this genus, with their small ends together.
They are niucli larger and more pointed than those of the
Lapsing, being on an average two inches and one-twelfth in
length, and an inch and five-tAvelfths in their greatest trans-
verse diameter. The shell is thin and smooth, of a light
gTeyish yellow, or pale grecnish-yeilow, or cream colour,
irregularly spotted, dotted, and patched witli dark brown,
and sometimes having a few light purple spots interspersed,
the markings larger toward the broadest part. The yoimg
leave the nest immediately after they burst the shell, and
conceal themselves by lyiug flat on the ground. At this
period, the female evinces the greatest anxiety for their
safety, and Avill occasionally feign lameness to entice the
intruder to ])ursue her. I have several times seen one fly off"
to a considerable distance, alight in a conspicuous place, and
tumble about as if in the agonies of death, her wings flapping
as if they had been fractured or dislocated. The eggs are
delicious, and the young birds when fledged not less so.

When the young are able to fly, the Plovers collect into
flocks, but remain on the moors until the commencement of
winter, Avhen they advance towards the pasture lands, and
in severe weather betake themselves to the low grounds near
the shores. During continued frosts, they feed on the sands
and rocky shores at low water, and in general during the
winter remain at no great distance from the sea.

When a flock alights at this season on a field, the indi-
vidiuils disjicrse, run about with gi'cat activity, and pick up
their food. Sometimes one finds them so tame that he can
ap])roach within fifteen yards, and I have often w^alked
round a flock several times in order to force them together
before shooting. In windy weather they often rest by lying
flat <m the gi'ound, and I have reason to think that at night
this is their general practice. In the Hebrides I have often
gone to shoot them by moonlight, when tlu'y seemed as
activelv engaged as by day, which was also the case with

GOLDEN PLOVEU. 101

the Snipes; but I seldom succeeded in my object, it IjeiiiLi;
extremely difficult to estinuitc distances at nij^lit. The
nunil)ers that at this season fVe(|uent the sandy pastures and
shores of the outer Hebrides is astonishin;;-.

Althou<?h occasionally addicted to ^vadin^■, the Golden
Plover evidently prefers dry ground, in Avhieh respect it
differs essentially in habits froin the Totani and Limosiu. It
frequently probes the moist sands, and in suninur the cow-
dung' on the moors and u])liind ])astur(;s is seen perforated
by its bill. In sunnner and autunni it lives on worms, larv.e,
and insects ; in \\ inter and spring chiefly on marine animals,
especially mollusca. It aflbrds very delicate eating, being
scarcely inferior to the Woodcock, and is in prime condition
in Se])tember and October.

When searching for food in the pasture gi'onnds, tlie
Plovers run about in a lively mann(;r, pick up an object, a
worm, an insect, or a small helix, then perhaps stand still
and look around for a moment, and contiTiue their occu-
pation. If disturbed they cease their pursuit, stand Avith
erected neck, and gaze upon the intruder. One here and
there stretches out his wings in a perpendicular direction,
another utters a loud mellow scream, wlien suddenly all fly
up, and wheel away, often rising to a great height, and per-
forming various evolutions before they alight again. Their
flight is beautiful, being direct, sedate, performed by regu-
larly-timed beats ; the birds sometimes moving in a loose or
a dense body, sometimes in a straight or angular or undu-
lated line.

On the first frosty days it is pleasant to watch their
arrival from the moors, and see them disperse over the mari-
time pastures, where, as they are generally hungry, one may
frequently obtain several shots. But it is on the flat shores
and banks of the Hebrides, on the sands of Uist and Harris,
and the Reef of Berneray, that at this season one may be
sure of abundant sport. There thousands arc often seen,
and there it is said upwards of twenty have been killed at a
shot. This is possible enough ; but for my own part, I have
been content with three, four, or five at a shot, and tin-
srreatest number I ever killed was six. When a flock on

102 PLUVIALIS AUKEA.

wing is fired at, all the birds come sweeping down toward
the ground, in a more or less abrupt curve, and then ascending
in a gentler sweep resume tlieir course. Frequently, also,
should some of them be killed, the rest will wheel round, and
come again within shot.

The Plovers of the Hebrides do not migrate : they merely
shift from the moors to the shores and back again. In the
mainland districts, they act in the same manner ; but their
flijrhts arc there more extended. On the Plain of Corstor-
phine, near Edinburgh, vast flocks are often seen in winter,
which have come from the interior, and in snoAvy weather
betake themselves to the shore at Cramond. Aberlady Bay
is also a favourite place of resort. Vast numbers are seen
on various parts of the Solway Frith ; and all these birds
probably remain during the winter.

In England, however, it would appear that the flocks
which occur in the southern counties, in winter, migrate far
northward in spring. Mr. Thompson says it " is common in
suitable localities throughout Ireland, and is permanently
resident." What the " natural enemies " of the Golden
Plover are I am unable to say, not having seen any animal
but man molest it. The Hooded Crow probably devours the
eggs and young, whenever he meets w'ith them, and the
Raven would be equally unscrupulous. This, however, is
mere conjecture on my part. But Mr. St. John has seen the
Peregrine Falcon pursue and capture it. " In the plain
country near the sea-shore (in Morayshire) the Peregrine
freqiumtly pursues the Peewits and other birds that frequent
the coast. The Golden Plover, too, is a favourite prey, and
affords the hawk a severe chase before he is caught. I have
seen a pursuit of this kind last for nearly ten minutes, the
Plover turning and doubling like a hare before a greyhound,
at one moment darting like an arrow into the air, high above
the Falcon's head ; at the next, sweeping round some bush
or headland — but in vain. The Hawk, with steady, relent-
less flight, without seeming to hurry herself, never gives up
the chase, till the poor Plover, seemingly quite exhausted,
slackens her pace, and is caught by the Hawk's talons in
mid-air, and carried off to a convenient hillock or stone to
be quietly devoured."

GOLDEN PLOVER. 103

Young. — Tlio yoiin^ arc at first covcrod with a f^royish
down, of which the tips arc ycdlow. When fledged they are
browuish-black, spotted with bright yellow above, and in
other respects scarcely different from the adult birds in their
winter dress.

Remarks. — Many of the older writers, observant, not of
living birds, but of stuffed skins, considered the Golden
Plover in its summer vesture quite a different species from
itself in its winter coat ; but, as this and other mistakes of a
like nature have been clearly exposed by M. Temminck and
other writers, it is unnecessary to lay much stress upon them
here. The above description is entirely original, my oppor-
tunities of examining and observing the species having been
excellent. On referring to various writers, I find nothing of
any importance to add, excepting what refers to the distri-
bution of the species.

On the continent it is said to extend in summer from
Ijapland to the southern parts of Europe, and in winter is
abundant in the latter. It is also found in various parts of
Asia, among others in Northern India ; and, it is said, in
the South Sea Islands. I have a specimen from Norway in
summer plumage, the black of the breast blacker and more
continuous than I have seen it in any British individuals.

The obstinacy Avith Avhich people adhere to exploded
errors is really surprising. M. Lesson, in his ill-digested,
but yet Miiofnl, Manuel (POrff if Iwloffie, ini'onns ns that the
" Pluvicr dore a gorge noire, Charadrius apricarius, Gm., is
considered as a distinct species by some ornithologists, and
as the Golden Plover in its nuptial plumage, according to
some others, and particularly M. Temminck, who describes
it as the adult age of Charadrius pluvialis. AVliat Avould
lead one to think that this Plover really forms a distinct
species is, that of the tliousands of individuals which I have
seen in Saintonge, where the Golden Plovers are very
common, I have never met with a single individual that had
the plumage of the Apricarius."

104

PLUVIALIS MORINELLUS. THE DOTTEREL
PLOVER.

Charadrius MorinoUus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 25-1.

Charadi-ius Morincllus. Lath. lud. Ornith. IL 747.

Dottrel. Mont. Ornith. Diet.

Pluvicr Guignard. Cliaradrius Morinellus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. IL 537.

Charadrius Morincllus. Dottrel. Flem. Brit. Anim. 113.

Dotterel. Cliaradrius Morinellus. Selb. Illustr. Brit. Ornith. I. 236.

Charadrius Morincllus. Dotterel Plover. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 178.

Eudromias MorincUa. Bonap. Corap. List, 45.

Bill slender, considerably shorter than the head; inner
secondaries extremely elongated. In winter, the top of the
head dark broicn, laterally margined with reddish-white;
tipper ])arts greenish-broivn, the feathers edged with pale
red ; forehead and cheeks whitish, streahed icith dushy ; fore-
neck brownish-grey ; a transrerse band of white at its lower
part; breast brownish-red. In summer, the top of the head
broicnish-black, laterally margined icith pure white, of ivhich
colour are the forehead and cheeks ; upper parts yreyish-
broicn, the feathers edged loith red; fore-neck brownish-grey ;
a double transverse band, black and white, at its lower part;
breast bright red; jxirt of abdomen black, Young with the
top of the head, and upper jiarts of the body, dark brown,
edged with buff-orange ; forehead, band over the eyes, throat,
and sides of the face cream-yellow, streaked with greyish-
brown; sides of the neck and flanks buff-orange, streaked
with dusky ; breast pale reddish-grey , abdomen white.

Male in Summer. — This beautiful bird is considerably
smaller than the Golden IMover, -which it clearly resembles
in form, but ^vith tlie tail somewhat longer and more rounded,
and the inner secondaries extremely elongated. The body
is moderately full, the neck of ordinary length ; the head

DOTTEREL PLOVER. 105

louudish, a little- compicsscd, the loiclR'ud roimdcd. The
bill is short, slender, straight, .suh-eyliiidrical ; the u])i)er
mandible with the dorsal line straight for two-thirds, then
convex and declinate, the ridge flattened at the base, the
edges a little involute toward the tip, which is ratlier sharp ;
the lower mandible with the outline of the crura short and
slightly concave, the dorsal line ascending and straight, the
edges sharp, involute toward the end, the tip rather sharp ; the
gape-line straight, the nasal groove extended to two-thirds.

The nostrils are linear, lateral, sub-basal, two -twelfths
and a half in length. The eyes large, their aperture nearly
three-twelfths. The legs are of moderate length, slender ;
the tibia bare for half-an-inch ; the tarsus slender, roundish,
covered all round with lu-xagonal scales ; the outer toe con-
nected at the base with tlie middle toe by a short membrane ;
the inner much shorter, with eighteen scutella, tlie next
with twenty-five, the outer with twenty-two; all marginate,
and having the soles smoothish and Hatteued. The claws
are short, considerably curved, compressed, slender, bluntish.
The plumage is soft and rather blended; the feathers
oblong and obtuse, those of the head short. The wings are
long and acuminate ; the first quill longest, the second a
twelfth and a half shorter, the rest rapidly graduated ; the
outer secondaries incurved, obliquely rounded, and acumi-
nate ; one of the inner secondaries as long as the second
(piill when the wing is closed. Tail of moderate length,
rounded.

The bill is bluish-black ; the iris brown ; the feet pale
brownish-green, the toes blackish-grey, the heel orange, the
claws black. The upper part of the head brownish-black ;
the feathers of the forehead margined with white ; a white
band extends from the lore, over the eye, to the occiput,
where it meets that of the other side ; the sides of the head
and the throat white, with some dusky specks ; the ear-
coverts and the neck all round pale greyish-brown. The
upper parts are pale gTcyish-brown, the feathers margined
with brownish-yellow ; the scapulars and inner secondaries
darker and shaded with green. The primary quills and
coverts are greyish-bro\^Ti, the shaft of the first quill white ;

106 PLUMALIS MORIXELLUS.

the secondaries and their coverts light greyish-brown, the
outer margined and tipped with white. There is a broad
transverse band or half ring of w hite, at the junction of the
neck and breast, edged above Avith black, and beneath with
an interrupted narrower dusky band. The sides and fore
part of the breast are deep yellowish-red ; on its hind part
is a large patch of black ; the abdomen and lower tail-coverts
yellowish-white. The tail-feathers are brownish-grey, toward
the end dark brown, glossed with green, excepting the two
middle tipped with white, the lateral more extensively, and
with its outer margin white.

Length to end of tail 10 inches ; extent of wings 19 ; wing
from flexure 6^ ; tail ^\^'> ^^^^ along the ridge -/V, along the
edge of lower mandible \^; tarsus 1-^; inner toe -^, its
claw ^\ ; middle toe \^, its claw -^; outer toe -j^, its claw -f\^.

Female. — The colours are similar to those of the male,
but paler. The top of the head is deep brown, streaked with
yellowish-white ; the yellowish -brown of the breast is mixed
with white feathers, and the deep brown of the hind part of
the breast is nearly supplanted by white. The lower surface
of the Avings in both is pale giey.

Length to end of tail 9^ inches; extent of wings 18|-;
wing from flexure 6-j^; tail ilf^; bill along the ridge -^;
tarsus 1-Yry', inner toe -pj-, its claw -p^; middle toe -j^, its
claw -^; outer toe -jV, its claw -j^.

Variations. — I have not observed any remarkable vari-
ations in adult birds, although I have examined a consider-
able number of individuals. The above descriptions are
taken from two fresh specimens shot near Edinburgh on the
19th of May, 1824, and compared with a pair obtained near
Haddington in July, 1835.

Habits. — The Dotterel makes its appearance in various
parts of England and Scotland, at two different seasons of
the year ; first, on its way northward, in A])ril and May, and
again, on its return, in September and October. It does not
appear that individuals renunn in this country after November.

DOTTEREL PLOVER. lUT

In (lie south of Imi^IuikI it ^(Micrally arrives aliout tlic !?Otli
of April, in small Hocks which pass over the midland and
eastern counties, some settling on the northern hills, espe-
cially those of Cumherlaiul aiul Westmoreland; others on
tlio Lammermoor Hills, and the western ami middle (iram-
pians. ])uring its sojourn in the southern districts, it fre-
quents the open downs and ])lou<;hed fields, wlu're it searches
for worms and insects ; hut for its hreeding- places it selects
the more elevated heaths.

In the parish of Towie, in Aberdeenshire, I met with a
very lar<;e liock on a low hill, on the 10th of September,
1821, and was assured by a gentleman residing at its foot
that they bred on the elevated moors every year. This flock
j)recisely resembled one of Golden Plovers immediately after
the breeding season. Not having been molested, the birds
merely ran along before us as we approached them. Several,
on being first roused, stretched up their Avings, as is custo-
mary with all the birds of this group, and moved about in a
listless sort of way, seeming to entertain little apprehension
of danger. On being urged, they rose on Aving, but presently
alighted in the neighbourhood. It is this insensibility to
danger which has procured for them the names of Dotterels
and ^Nloriuelli, or little fools. It has been alleged, too, that
by stupidly looking on, and imitating the gestiires of the
fowler, they suffered themselves to be driven into the net ;
but this propensity to imitate is probably imaginary, although
it is certain that the bird often runs along with an out-
stretched wing, which might be supposed to be in imitation
of an elevated arm. "When shot at they are said often to fly
around and over the birds that have been killed or wounded,
and to alight in the neighbourhood ; but after being harassed,
they become more wary, and fly to a distance. In unfre-
quented parts of Scotland, the Gcdden Plovers are scarcely
more suspicious, inasmuch that one may by walking round
a scattered flock drive them into a compact body, before
shooting, as I have myself often done.

The only good account of the habits of this bird, derived
fiom the author's own observation, is the following by T. C.
Heysham, Esq., published in the Magazine of Natural His-

108 PLUVIALIS MORIXELLUS.

tonj, vol. ii. p. 295: — "In the neighbourhood of Carhsle
Dottrels seldom make their appearance before the middle of
May, abont which time tliey are occasionally seen in different
localities, in Hocks which vary in number from five to fifteen,
and almost invariably resort to heaths, barren pastures,
fallow yrounds, &c., in open and exposed situations, Avhere
they continue, if unmolested, from ten days to a fortnight,
and then retire to the mountains in the vicinity of the lakes
to breed. The most favourite breeding haunts of these birds
are always near to or on the summits of the highest moun-
tains, particularly those that are denscdy covered with the
woolly fringe moss (Trichostomum lanuginosum, Iledw.),
which ind(H>d grows more or less profusely on neai-ly all the
most elevated parts of this alpine district. In these lonely
places they constantly reside the whole of the breeding-
season, a considerable part of the time enveloped in clouds,
and almost daily drenched with rain or wetting mists, so
extremely prevalent in these dreary regions ; and there can
be little doubt that it is owing to this peculiar feature in
their economy, that they have remained so long in obscurity
during the period of incubation. The Dottrel is by no means
a solitary bird at this time, as a i-^w pair usually associate
together, and live, to all appearance, in the gi-eatest harmony.
These birds do not make any nest, but deposit their eggs,
which seldom exceed three in number, in a small cavity on
dry gi'ound covered Avith vegetation, and generally near a
moderate-sized stone, or fragment of rock. In early seasons
old females will occasionally begin to lay their eggs about
the 26th of May, but the greater part seldom commence
before the first or second week in June. It would appear,
however, from the following facts, that they vary exceedingly
in this respect. On the 19th of July, 1833, a perfect v\i:,'^
was taken out of a female, which had been recently killed
on Kolnnson ; and on the 2Gth of May, 1834, I received four
Dottrels from Keswick, which had been shot on Great Gavel
the day before. In the ovary of one of them I found an q^*^
almost (piite ready for exclusion, being a difference of nearly
eight weeks. So great a discrepancy in all ]irobability is of
very rare occurrence, yet it Avill subsequently ai)pear that

DOTTEREL PLOVER. 109

Ci^o-s recently laid, and a younj^ bird, a few days old, wore
found on the same day, at no f^roat distance from each other.
Tlie males assist the females in the incubation of their cctrs.
How long incubation continues I have not yet been able to
ascertain, but I am inclined to think that it rarely lasts much
longer than eighteen or twenty days. A week or two previous
to their departure, they congregate in flocks, and continue
together until they finally leave this country, which takes
place som(>times during the latter end of August, at others,
not before the beginning of September. A few birds, no
doubt, are occasionally seen after this pericnl, but they are
either late broods, or birds tliut are returning from more
northern latitudes. Tliis autumn I visited several brecdinir
stations on the 2'5th of August, and again on the 2nd of
September, but in neither instance could I observe a single
individual.

" Anxious as I have been for several years past to procure
the eggs of the Dottrel, for the purpose of adding undoubted
specimens of so rare an egg to my cabinet, as well as to
prove beyond all doubt that this bird breeds in Cumberland,
yet it was not until the present year that I had the gi-atifi-
cation of accoinplishing an object which I have had so long
in view. After repeated excursions through the lake dis-
trict, this sunmier, for the express pur^iose, I was so fortu-
nate as to obtain their eggs in two different localities,
namely, three on Whiteside, contiguous to Helvellyn, on the
29th of June ; and two on the 5th of July, on Kobinson, in
the vicinity of 15uttermere. The former had been incubated
twelve or fourteen days, the latter were only recently laid,
and in both instances the birds were sceu to leave their cfffrs ;
one, on quitting tlu>m, innnediately spread out its wings and
tail, wliich it trailed on the ground a short distance, and
then went away without uttering a single note. On this
day (5th July, 18o5), a young bird, a few days old, was also
captured.

" Having spent a considerable portion of several days on
Robinson, in company with a very able assistant, searching
for the eggs of the Dottrel, I had, of course, ample oppor-
tunities of observing their manners ; and I flatter myself

110 PLUAIALIS MORINELLUS.

that the folluwing particulars will be interesting to some of
my ornithological readers. On the ord of July we found
three or four ])air near the most elevated part of this moun-
tain, and on all our visits thither, Avhether early in the
morning or late in the afternoon, the greater part were
ahvavs seen near the same place, sitting on the ground.
When first discovered, they permitted us to approach within
a short distance, without showing any symptoms of alarm ;
and frecpiently afterwards, when within a few paces, watching
their movements, some would move slowly about and pick
up an insect, others would remain motionless, now and then
stretching out their wings, and a few would occasionally toy
with each other, at the same time uttering a few low notes,
which had some resemblance to those of the common linnet,
Linaria canmthiua. In short, they appeared to be so very
indifferent with regard to our presence, that at last my
assistant could not avoid exclaiming, ' What stupid birds
these are ! ' The female that had young, nevertheless
evinced considerable anxiety for their safety, whenever we
came near the place where they were concealed, and as long
as we remained in the vicinity, constantly Acav to and fro
above us, uttering her note of alarm.

" As soon as the young birds were fully feathered, two
were killed for the purpose of examining their plumage in
this state ; and we found that after they had been fired at
once or twice, they became more wary, and eventiuiUy we
had some little difficulty in approaching sufficiently near to
effect our purpose. The moidt appears to commence some-
what early in old birds ; a male that Avas killed on the 25tli
of July was completely covered with pen-feathers, and the
belly, from inciibation, almost entirely bare. The stomachs
I dissected were all filled with elytra and remains of small
coleopterous insects, which in all probability constitute their
principal food during the breeding season.

" These birds I understand are getting every year more
and more scarce in the neighbourhood of the lakes ; and
from the numbers that are annually killed by the anglers at
Keswick and the vicinity, (their fi'atluns liaving long been
held in high estinuition for dressing artificial fiies,) it is

DOTTEREL PLOVER. HI

extremely probable tliat in a few years tliey will beeonic so
exceedingly rare, that specimens will be procured with con-
siderable difficulty." The author then gives the names and
elevations of the mountains on which they have been known
to breed, viz.: — " Hellvellyn, Si) '')>') ; Whiteside; Whatson
Uod ; Great Dod ; Saddleback, 2787 ; Skiddaw, 3022 ; Car-
rock Fell, 2110 ; Grassmoor, 2750; Rol)inson, 2292; Gold
Scalp, 1114 ; Great Gavel, 2925 feet above the sea-level."

"All the eggs found on Whiteside and Robinson, were
very similar with respect to colour and markings, but differed
a little in size and formation, varying from l-f\j to 1-^^ of an
inch in length ; and in breadth from l-^^ to l-j^^; the gi'ound
colour wine-yellow, varying a little in tint, and all thickly
covered with large blotches and spots of different shades of
brownish-black, particularly at the obtuse end." The fol-
lowing descriptions of the young are by the same observer.

Young. — " Description of a young Dottrel, a few^ days
old, captured alive on Robinson, July 5th, 1835. Front of
the head, throat, a bare space round the neck, and all the
under parts covered with a whitish down. Top of the head,
occiput, and all the upper parts of the body, dark brown,
mixed here and there Avith buff-orange, and whitish down.
The few feathers that have made their appearance on the
breast, belly, and flanks, buff-orange, slightly spotted with
gi*eyish-brown ; a few feathers on the back blackish-brown,
edged with reddish-white. Bill black. Irides very dark
brown. Legs and toes pale cinereous, slightly tinged with
gi-een."

" Description of a young female, three weeks or a month
old, killed on Robinson, July 25th, 1835. Forehead, throat,
and sides of the face cream-yellow, covered with small spots
and tine streaks of gi-cyish-brown. Crown of the head,
occiput, and also the feathers on the back, dark brown, all
more or less broadly edged Avith buff-orange. Scapulars and
wing-coverts olive-green, deeply edged with reddish-white.
Tail the same, finely margined with wliite, the centre feathers
broadly tipped with reddish-white, and the three lateral ones
on each side ending in a large irregular wliitish spot. Sides

112 PLUVIALIS MORINELLUS.

of the neck, flanks, and a broad band above each eye, bnff-
orange, the former finely streaked with gre) ish-brown.
Breast cinereous, slightly tinged -with reddish-white, and
marked on each side Avith large spots of olive-gTcen. Belly
Avhite, sjiotted here and there with g-reyish-brown. Bill
black. Irides dark brown. Legs pale olive-green, soles
bright yellow."

The following observations I transcribe from an nnpnb-
lished Fauna of Aberdeenshire and the neighboining coun-
ties ; — " This beautiful bird arrives about the middle of May
in the upland tracts of the counties of Forfar, Kincardine,
Aberdeen, Banff, and Moray, and resides there until the end
of September, Avhen it migrates southward. It has been
met with on many of the hills of this tract through the
sunnner, and great numbers have been killed in early
autumn by sportsmen engaged in grouse-shooting; but its
nest does not appear to have been found by any person
interested in the habits of birds. Dr. Irving, Old Aberdeen,
informs me that he has shot several specimens in August
and September on the moors near Tarland. According to
Mr. G. Anderson, Inverness, as stated in Mr. Gordon's
Faima of Moray, it is ' frequently killed by sportsmen in
Strathdearn and Badenoch.' In autumn, when it has col-
lected into flocks, it is excessively fat, and so little appre-
hensive of danger that the flocks may be easily approaclied.
Toward the end of September, they betake themselves to
the loAver grounds, and proceed southwards. But there is
also a migration from more northern countries, and flocks
pass northward in the end of spring. At both seasons they
have been met with along the coast, from Montrose to
Fraserbtngh. The Rev. Mr. Smith says : — ' The Dotterel is
seen almost yearly, in its progress towards the north, on the
links, — as th{>y are called, — Avhicli adjoin the Loch of
Strathbcg. In May, 1847, I accidentally fell in with a flock
upon a piece of ploughed land near to the Old Castle of
Federret, in New Deer. I am not aware that it is seen in
this quarter (the parish of Mon([u]iitt(>r) during the autumnal
luigration. It has been shot on a rough ])iece of unenclosed
land near Macduff.' On the 8th of August, 18'31, being on

DOTTEREL rLO\E]l. 113

tho colcbratod mountain of" Loclmagar, in the u])i)or ])art of
AlKTclcLMisliiro, I came upon a Dotterel, Avliich Hew from
among some stones, pretendinj^ lameness, and hovered
around, manifesting great anxiety. I shouted for tAvo of my
companions, who had advanced, to come and see it, which
they did. Although it was evident the hird had a nest or
young ones, as it fluttered and limped when chased, "we
failed in discovering its charge, and therefore left it. Mr.
M'Gregor, Achallader, and ]Mr. Cumming, Factor to Lord
Fife, infonned me that though Dotterels still breed on the
higher hills in Braemar, they are less frequent now than
formerly, when th(>y used to form flocks in autumn on the
moors. They are known to l)reed in other ])arts of Aber-
deenshire, especially in the Strath-Don district ; and I have
seen a few individuals, in August, in the upper part of
Forfarshire.

114

CHARADRIUS. rxIXG-PLOYER.

The Ring-riovcrs constitute a genus of very considerable
extent, although not more than three species occur in Britain.
They are all of small size, some of them not exceeding a
Brown Linnet, -while the largest does not equal the Golden
Plover. Although in most respects they agree with the
Plovers, properly so called, they differ in others, of which
some notice will he taken after giving their general cha-
racters. The body is ovate and moderately full ; the neck
short ; the head moderate, oblong, compressed, and much
rounded above.

Bill generally much shorter than the head, straight,
rather slender, as broad as high, slightly compressed toAvard
the end ; upper mandible with the dorsal line straight and
slightly declinate for half its length, then bulging or arcuate,
the nasal gi-oove about half its length, the edges slightly
inflected toward the end, the tip rather obtuse ; lower man-
dible with the angle of moderate length, the dorsal line
ascending and a little convex, the sides concave at the base,
convex toward the end, the edges inflected, the tip narrow,
but rather blunt ; the gape-line straight. Mouth extremely
narrow, as is the palate, on which are two longitudinal
ridges, and anteriorly a few papilhv. Tongue of moderate
length, narrow, deeply channelled above, with the edges
involute, the base emarginate and papillate, the tip narrow,
Avith a thin horny edge. CEsopliagus narrow ; ]noventri-
culus oblong, Avith a broad belt of oblong glandules. Stomach
a roundish, compressed gizzard, Avith thick lateral muscles,
radiated tendons, and dense longitudinally rugous epithelium.
Intestine of moderate length and Avidth ; coeca rather small,
cylindrical , narroAv.

Nostrils small, linear, pervious, sub-basal. Eyes large
and full ; eyelids feathered. Aperture of ear rather large,
roundish. Feet of moderate length, very slender ; tibia bare
for about a fourth ; tarsus of ordinary length, covered Avith

C'lIAKADIlIUS. RIXG-PLOVEU. 113

lu'xaf^onal schIcs. Toes ratlicr short, slender, three, witli
ininiorous scutelhi, marginato, the outer considcrahlv lon<^er
tliau the inner, and connected with tlie tliird hy a basal
wel). (Maws rather short, coni])ressed, sli<>htly arched,
slender, rather acute.

Pluniafi^o ordinary, close, rather blended ; feathers oblon*;
or ovate. Wini;s very lon^, narrow, ])ointed, of twenty-five
(luills ; the primaries tapering, the first longest, the rest
ra])idly diminishing; the outer secondaries short, incurved,
and obliquely rounded, the inner tapering and extremely
elongated. Tail straight, rather broad, of moderate length
or long, rounded in various dcgi-ees, of twelve feathers, of
which the two middle are somewhat pointed.

The species of this genus are very extensively distributed,
and some one or other occurs in almost every known region.
They frequent chiefiy the sandy shores of the sea, lakes, and
rivers ; but some occur also in the interior, chiefly on dry
barren grounds. After the breeding season, they often form
large flocks. Their nests are a slight hollow in the sand,
sometimes with a few vegetable substances, and their eggs
are four, pyriform, extremely large, light-coloured, and
dotted or clouded with dusky tints. The young, covered
Avith down, run presently after birth, and conceal themselves
by squatting. All the species are very active and lively,
run with great celerity, have a very rapid flight, and emit a
clear, mellow cry. Their food consists of insects, Crustacea,
mollusca, and worms. Their flesh is good, and their eggs
delicate. One species is common and resident in Britain,
another occurs on the sands of the southern and eastern
counties of England, and a third has been met with only in
one or two instances.

The Ring-Plovers have the body, and especially the
wings and tail, more elongated than the Plovers, the neck
shorter, and the head proportionally larger. White and
grey or brown, in masses, are their predominant colours;
and all are broadly banded or ringed on the head and neck.
Their lower jiarts do not become black in spring and
summer, as is the case Avith the Plovers ; nor is their
plumage ever spotted or striped like theirs.

116

CHARADRIUS HIATICULA. THE COMMON
lUXG-PLOVER.

RING DOTTEREL. RING PLOVER. SAND LARK. S.VNDY L.\"\T.ROCK. S.VNDY
LOO. DUL^\^LLY. STONEIL\TCU. STONE PLOVER. BOTHAG.

I'l.;. 11.

Clmradiius Iliatieula. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 2.53.

Charadrius Iliatieula. Lath. Ind. Ornith. II. 713.

Ringud riovor. Mont. Ornith. Diet, and Supplt.

Grand Pluvier a collier. Charadrius Hiaticula Temm. Man. d' Ornith. II.

539.
Charadrius Hiaticula. Ringed Plover. Flem. Brit. Anim. 113.
Ringed Plover. Charadrius Hiaticula. Selby, Illustr. Brit. Ornith. II. '240.
Charadrius Hiaticula. Ringed Plover. Jen. Brit. Vert. Anim. 179.
-Egialitcs Hiaticula. Bonap. Comp. List. 4o.

Length about eight inches, hill seven-tirelfths, lialf as long
as the head, icings and tail of equal length. Adult with the
tipper parts grey ish-br own ; the forehead u-ith tu-o bands, a
irJiite and a black; a dark brown band tinder the eye; a ring
of white including the throat, succeeded by a broader ring of
brownish-black ; bill orange at the base, black at the end;
feet orange, claws black. Young without the black band on
the forehead, the other dark bands lighter, the feathers of the
tipper 2)cirts margined tcith pale brownish-red, the bill entirely
black, the feet dull greenish-ycUoir, the claws black.

COMMON KING I'LOVER. 117

Male in Winter. — Tliis most lively and beautiful little
bird, whieh is a eoustant resident in JJritain, and occurs on
all our flat coasts, is of a compact fonn, havin<^ the body
moderately full and a little compressed ; the neck short ;
tlie liead rather lar<i;e, and much rounded above. The lull is
about half the length of the head, straight, slightly com-
pressed near the end ; its upper mandible Avith the dorsal
line strai<:jht and the rid<j;e flattened for nearly two-thirds,
then arched and convex, the nasal groove extending to the
commencement of the arched part, the edges soft and some-
what inflected, the tip bluntish, but sharp-edged, as is that
of the lower mandible, of whicli the angle is moderate, the
dorsal line ascending and somewhat convex.

The nostrils are sub-basal, lateral, linear, two-twelfths
long, occupying the middle of the nasal groove. The eyes
large, their aperture having a diameter of two-twelfths and a
half. The feet are of moderate length and slender; the tibia
bare for about a quarter of an inch ; the tarsus a little com-
pressed, and covered with hexagonal scales ; the toes rather
short, flattened beneath, marginate, the outer and middle
connected bv a basal web extending as far as the second
joint of the former ; the inner or second with eighteen, the
third with thirty, the fourth with twenty-flve scutella. The
claws are short, compressed, slightly arched, slender, rather
acute.

The plumage is very soft, and rather blended ; the
feathers ovate and rounded. The wings long, pointed, when
closed reaching to the end of the tail ; the quills twenty-six ;
t\\v flrst longest, the second a tAvelfth shorter, the other pri-
maries rapidly graduated ; the secondaries curved iuAvards
and obliquely rounded, excepting the inner, which are very
long and taper to a blunt point, one of them reaching to
half-an-inch of the end of the first primary in the closed
Aving. The tail is of moderate length, nearly straight, con-
siderably rounded, the tAvo middle feathers sub-acimiinate.

The bill is black at the end, orange in the rest of its
extent. The iris broAvn. The feet orange, the claAvs black.
A band on the forehead, a line over the eye, the loAver eyelid,
the throat, and a broad band proceeding obliquely backAvards

118 CHARADllILS IIIATICULA.

from it so as to cncirck' tlie upper part of the neck, together
"with the hrcast, sides, abdomen, and lower tail and Aviug-
coverts, all ])ure "white. A broad transverse band over the
"wliito of the forehead, a line margining the upper mandible,
and proceeding, broader, along the lore under the eye to the
ear, and a belt round the lower neck, much broader in fi-ont,
are brownish-black, the feathers slightly edged with grey.
The top of the head, the occiput, a small portion of the
upper hind-neck, the back, and the wings are greyish-brown.
The quills are dark greyish-brown, of a deep tint toward
the end. A bar of Avhite extends across the wing, including
the shafts, near the end, of the outer primaries, increasing
on the rest, and on the secondaries, so as to occupy the
Avhole length of two of them, and returning outwards along
the tips of the quills, but evanescent on the primaries. The
tips of the secondary coverts are also white, as are those of
the primary coverts, but more narrowly. The inner secon-
daries are gTcvish-brown. The tail-feathers are pale greyish-
brown, becoming dark brown toward the end, the whole of
the outer two feathers, the outer margin of the next two,
and the tips of all, white.

Length to end of tail Sj inches ; extent of wings 17^ ;
wing from ilexure '5/^; tail 2,^^; bill along the ridge ,", ,
along the edge of lower mandible ,**., ; tarsus 1 ; inner toe /'„ ;
its claw ,-., ; middle toe j-'^, its claw ,'., ; inner toe ,", , its
claw ^\.

Femalk. — The female is similar to the male, ^\ ith the
following slight diffin-ences : — The a\ liitc band across the
forehead is tinged with brown, the dark band above it, and
that along the cheek, are greyish-brown, as is the fore part
of the dusky collar.

Length to end of tail H^ inches; extent of wings IT;
tarsus 1 ; middle toe and claw 1.

Variations. — Slight differences as to size and colouring
are observed. The sliafts of all tlie primaries are simietimes
white, unless at tlie end. The outer tail-feather sometimes
has a dusky sj)ot uear the ti]) ; the next has more frequently
a patch of the same.

COMMON ]lL\{M'J,OVKll. 119

Chan(jks ok Pumaok. — If tliiss])('ci{'s uu(lcr;;t)(s a partial
moult ill spring, no (liffcii'iicc is produced in tlic distrihutiou
of tlu' ('(dours. lu summer, tlie dark luarkiuj^s are deeper,
on account of the disappearance of tlie ;4reyish tips, and tiie
brownish-grey of tlie up})er })arts is paler. Towards autumn,
however, the colours l)eeome much faded. A male and a
female shot at Ythan Mouth on the i^Gth of May present the
following' particulars : —

Male in ISimmlh. — U])])er parts light gToyish-hrown ;
fi'ontal and cheek bands and collar deep brownish-black.

The tongue slender, tapering, concave above, horny and
thin-edged toward the bluntish tip ; (esophagus o inches long,
-fj in Avidth ; proventriculus bulbiforni ; stonuich very mus-
cular, -[4 long, -j^ in its greatest breadth, its epithelium
dense and rugose ; intestine IG in length, -jV in its greatest
width ; coeca 1-j^ long, cylindrical, obtuse, 1 j'^ from the
extremity.

Length 8-j^; extent of wings \G^; wing from flexure o^;
tail ~t-t; bill along the ridge -f^, along the edge of lower
mandible -^^; tarsus 1 ; middle toe ,V; its claw ^.

Female in Summer. — Similar to the male ; only with
the white frontal band, and that over and behind the eye, of
less extent ; the black collar of a lighter tint ; the dark band
on the tail luirrower.

The a'sophagus S inches long ; stomach \~- in length,
-fj in breadth ; intestine 16 in length, 1^ in width ; coeca
1-^, at the distance of 1-fV from the extremity. The stomach
was tilled entirely with renuiins of small colcoptera and
some sand.

Length S-jV ; extent of wings 16^ ; Aving from flexure
5-j^ ; tail 2\^ ; bill along the ridge -^, along the edge of
lower mandible -j^^ ; tarsus 1 ; middle toe -j^, its claw -fj.

I do not find a single new feather in either of these birds.

Habits. — Were I to describe the manners of this gentle
creature under the influence of the delightful enu)tions Avhich
the view of it has often excited in me, 1 should probably

120 CHARADKIUS IIIATICULA.

appear to the ci^rave admirer of nature an enthusiast, or an
imitator of other men's musings. "Well, let him think as he
lists ; but yet lives there the man, callin<i^ himself an orni-
tholo<;ist, Avho, quietly strolling- along the bright sandy
beach just left bare by the retiring tide, and aroused from
his pleasing reveries by the mellow -whistle of the Eing-
l^lover, would not gaze with delight on the pleasant little
thing that speeds away before him Avith twinkling feet, now
sto])s, pipes its clear cry, rinis, spreads its beautiful Avings,
glides close over the sand, and alights on some not distant
tuft. What are primaries and secondaries, coecums and
(luodenums, tvpes and analogies, sqiiares or circles, to him
who thus watches the living bird ? There is the broad blue
sea, on that hand the gTeen pasture, under foot and around
the pure sand, above the sunny sky. Frown not upon the
cheerfulness of nature ; shout aloud, run, leap, make the
Sand Lark thy plajTnate. "NVhy mayest thou not be drunk
with draughts of pure ether ? Are the gambols of a merry
naturalist less innocent than the mad freaks, the bowlings,
the ravings of sapient men assembled to deliberate about
corn-laws, or party zealots upholding their creed by palpably
demonstrating their total want of charity ?

Bv the middle of August, the young of this species are
able to shift for themselves. After this jieriod small flocks
of from five or six to fifteen or twenty individuals, may be
seen here and there along the sandy or pebbly shores, chiefly
in the neighbourhood of high-water mark, although some-
times also by the edge of the sea. ]Most of them have
nestled on the shores of the ocean, many on those of
estuaries, some of rivers and lakes, and a few even on sandy
h(>aths or Avarrens remote from Avater. But nOAv they all
resort to the sea, especially near the mouths of riAcrs. They
lun Avith great speed, ])i('k up insects, Crustacea, small
slielled mollusca, and marine* Avorms, along Avith Avhich they
SAvallow some particles of sand and gi-avel. Their mode of
]n-oceeding differs considerably from that of the Tringa?, Avith
whicli they often associate. The bird stands, suddenly runs
forAvard, picks up an object, stands again, and thus proceeds,
soTncAvhat in the manner of the Thrush. It does not probe

COMMON RING-PLOVER. 121

the sand or mud with (luickly-vcpeatod tappiiif;s of its bill,
as is the habit of the birds just niontioiu'd ; but on the cdj^e
of the sea, when the tide is risin<^ or retiriiijj;;, it is in more
constant motion than when on an exposed place. Unless
much molested, they are not generally shy; but in the
nei<;hbourhood of towns, where they are liable to be fre-
quently shot at, they are seldom disposed to allow^ a person
to approach very near. On the sands they are easily per-
ceived, but among pebbles it is very difficult to distinguish
them, insomuch that one may see them flying off from places
around him in which he had not suspected any of being.
On vising, aiul while on wing, they now and then emit their
very mellow and pleasant note. Their flight is rapid, even,
l)(>rformed by regularly-timed beats, and they glide along,
ofttMi at a very small h('i<;ht, or ascend, and perform various
evolutions before alighting, sometimes all the individuals in
a flock inclining to one side, so as to expose noAv their upper
and again their lower surfiice to the spectator. Frequently
when feeding they intermix with Sandpipers, Tiu'nstones,
liedshanks, and other species ; but in flying they generally
keej) apart. At high water they repose on the sands or on
the pastures, usiuiUy in a crouching posture. They are
])artly nocturnal, and I have often found them searching for
food by moonlight. As the autumn advances, they collect
into larger flocks, and at the mouths of rivers may often be
seen in very numerous bands. During winter and the
greater part of spring they continue along the sea-shore,
none being then found by the rivers or lakes.

Toward the beginning of April, the flocks break up into
smaller parties, and by the middle of that month the birds
have paired. As the constant residence of many of them is
the sea-shore, and the sands or pastures in its immediate
vicinity, they have no preparations to make, nor long journeys
to perform, before they conmience the absorbing occupations
connected with rearing their families. Just above the tide-
mark, either in the sand, or among the gravel or pebbles, they
scrape a slight hollow, which they often line Avith fragments
of shells, and in Avhich are deposited the four eggs, placed
with their small ends together. They are pyrifonn, with the

122 C'lIAllADlllUS IIIATICULA.

larijo end lu'iiiisphcrical, or a little Huttened ; tluir average
length an in( li and five-tAvelftlis, their greatest breadth eleven-
twelfths and a half, their colonr grevish-vellow, sparsely
covered all over with dots, small spots, and angular linear
markings of brownish-black and pnrplish-grey. On finding
the eggs on the beach one can scarcely believe that they
belong to so small a bird. The yonng are capable of running
the moment after they leave the eggs, and, when their
parents are away, cronch among the stones, bnt separatelv.
When sitting on her eggs, the ft^male will sometimes remain
until a person comes close, when she will run limping along,
to entice him to pursue her ; but more commonly she (juietly
leaves the nest, while he is yet at a distance, runs a con-
siderable way in silence, then stops, utters her cry, and
endeavours to attract his notice, or flies up to him, and goes
off in another direction. No birds manifest more anxiety
about their eggs and young. They often come up to within
a few yards of a person sauntering in their vicinity, feign
lameness, and run limpingly along for some distance. If
this does not suffice to entice the intruder, they droop one of
their wings, as if it had been broken or dislocated, aiul
shuffle away some yards farther. Then, perhai)s,both wings
seem broken, and the bird tumbles about in the most sur-
prising manner. If you now run up, it remains in the
agonies of death until you are within a few yards, when,
suddenly reviving, it starts upon its feet, emits a lively note,
runs a little way, springs into the air, and is off at full
speed, wheeling from side to side, and joyously whistling as
it ])roceeds. It now makes a very wide circuit, and comes
up in yonr rear, but remains motionless until you pass on.
In its attempts to decoy persons from its nest, I have some-
times seen it fly ofl" at once to the distance of a hundred
yards or more, spread out its wings and tail, and tumble as
if in a fit of epile])sy.

liut althoiiuli ])y far the greater number of individuals
nestle on the sea-shore, and remain there all the year, many
are to be found on the pebbly beaches of rivers, such as the
Spcv and the Dee, and even in the ])astures by the sides of
muddy or sandy streams in low districts. ISometimes, also,

COMMON IIIXG-PL0VK1{. 123

tlicy are seen by the banks uf lakes in the Iliglihuid.s of"
Seotlaud. Mr. Sahnoii, speakin<^ of the inif^ratory birds of
tlie ii('ii;hb()tirliood of Thetford, in Norfolk, .says " it is very
abundant upon all our warrens during- th;' breeding season,
and is the first bird that gives us notice of its arrival in the
spring-, by its low plaintive whistle whilst on the wini;', and
garrulous note of satisfaction when it alights upon the
ground. These notes are peculiarly pleasing at this early
season of the vear upon our warrens, where hitherto silence
has reigned for several months, only interrupted by the occa-
sional whistle of a flock of Golden IMovers as they sweep
past you ; but, as the season advances, its notes are too
melancholy for the freshness of spring. It commences its
nidification very early, as I have found them sitting iipon
tluMr eggs on the oOth of March. After having reared their
off-spring, they all take their departure, by the middle of
August, for the sea-coast, where they remain throughout the
winter." — Muff, of Xaf. Hist, v(d. ix. ]). 522.

This S})ecies is found on all our sandy sea-shores from
one end of the island to the other, and is plentiful in the
Shetland and Orkney Isles, as well as in the Hebrides,
especially the Outer, whose western coasts are chiefly of
shell sand. It remains all winter, but then usually deserts
the more exposed parts, aiul frequents the bays, creeks, and
estuaries, scarcely ever at that season going up rivers beyond
the tide. It has been supposed to be more numerous Avith
us in winter than in summer, and the alleged increase in the
former season has been attributed to the innnigi-ation of indi-
viduals from more northern countries. This may be correct ;
yet, if we consider that the birds are scattered in pairs
during summer, so that few at a time can be seen along the
coast, while many too resort to the interior, and that they
collect in autumn and Avinter into large flocks, causing
the species to appear very numerous, although only in
particular places, it may well seem difficult to decide.

It occurs in the arctic and northern regions of the Old
Continent, and has been seen as far south as the shores of the
^Mediterranean. In Iceland and Greenland it has also been
met with ; but the King -Plovers found in North America

124 CHARADRIUS HIATICULA.

are all different, although one of thoni was long considered
the same. That species, Charadrius semipalmatus of Bona-
parte, is extremely similar, differing only in being somewhat
less, and in Inning the toes more palmated. The Ringed-
Plover, according to Mr. Thompson, " is common," in Ire-
land, " at all seasons, except summer, in small flocks around
the sandy or gravelly shores ; where also a limited number
annually breed."

YoiNG. — The young, which at first are covered Avith
very soft down, of a Avhite colour, Avith dusky grey patches,
are, Avhen fledged, as folloAvs : — The bill is broAvnish-black at
the end, paler toAvards the base, a small portion of the lower
mandil)lc flesh-coloured, the iris broAvuish-black, the feet
dull greenish-ochre, the claws black. The coloiu's are dis-
tributed as in the adult ; but the feathers of the upper parts
are margined Avith light brownish-red, fading to greyish-
Avhite, the dusky bands are broAvnish-grey, that on the fore-
head is Avanting, the broad band on the neck meets but par-
tially in front, a large Avhite space being left beloAv. One
shot on the 2Gth of May has the upper part of the head
brownish-gi-ey ; a Avhite frontal band ; a AAhite collar, the
feathers there very soft, almost doAvny ; the dusky collar not
of a darker tint than the back ; the upptT parts liglit broAvnish-
grey, the feathers all margined with reddish-Avhite, Avithin
Avhich is a A'ery narroAv dusky line ; quills and tail-feathers
nearly as in the adult, the Avhite on the a\ ings of less extent.
This individual measured 7 inches in length, 15|- in extent
of Avings.

Progress toward Maturity. — ^After the first mo\ilt,
Avhich commences in the beginning of October, and is not
completed until tlic middle of spring, the young cannot be
distinguished from the adult. During this time the base of
the bill changes from black to broAvn, broAvnish-yellow, and
orange; the feet from dull greenish-ochre to light reddisli-
bvowii, broAA'nish-yelloAV, and orange-yelloAV. The black
band on the forehead, and the black feathers Avhich complete
the ring in front, are produced in jNlarch and April.

12 J

CIIARx\J31lIUS CANTIANUS. THE KENTISH
KING-PLOVER.

KKNTISII PLOVKU.

Charadrius cautiaiius. Lath. Ind. Ornith. Supplt. II. 31G.

Ki'ntish riover. Mont. Ornitli. Diet. Supplt.

I'luvior a collier intorrompu. Charadrius cantianus. Temm. Man. d'Uruith.

II. 544.
Charadrius .tUc.\andrinus. Kentish Plover. Flcm. Brit. .Inim. 114.
Kentish Plover. Charadrius cantianus. Selby, lUustr. Brit. Ornith. II. 243.
Charadrius cantianus. Kentish Plover. Jcnyns, Brit. Vert. Anim. 180.
.-Egialitcs Cantianus. Bonap. Comp. List, 45.

Length nearli/ sccen inches ; bill sccen-ticelfths, more than
half the Icmjth of the head ; wings shorter than the tail.
Adult with the uj}j)er jjarts light brownish-grog ; the forehead
with two bands, a white and a black, the hind i^art of tlie
headlight brownish-red ; the loral space and a band behind
the eye black; the throat and a band crossing the hind neck
ivhite ; a large patch of black on each side of the lower part
of the neck; bill black, the loicer mandible flesh-coloured at
the base ; feet dusky ; claws black. Young icithout black on
the head ; the bands on its sides and the patches on the neck
brown ; the feathei's of the xipper parts margined with
whitish.

^NIale in Si^rMER. — This pretty Httle Ring-Plover is
considerably inferior in size to the common species, already
described, from -which it is easily distinguished by its having
merely two patches of black in the place of an entire ring of
that colour on the neck. It is also of a more slender form,
and has the -wings shorter than the tail, although otherwise
its proportions are nearly the same. The body is ovate, the
neck short, the head rather large and ovate, Avith the front

126 CHARABRIUS CAXTIAXUS.

considerably elovated. The bill is shorter than the head,
nearly straight, bein<»- shortly recurved toward the end. The
upper mantlible has the dorsal line straight for nearly two-
thirds, then convex ; the nasal groove long, the edges toward
the end a little inflected, the tip narrow but blunt ; the lower
mandible with the angle rather long and narrow, the dorsal
line ascending and convex, the sides flat at the base, then
convex, the edges a little inflected, the tip narrow.

The eyes are large ; the nostrils linear ; the aperture of
the ear roundish aiul rather large. The legs are of moderate
length, and slender; the tibia bare for rather more than half
an inch ; the tarsus with two anterior rows of scales and six
inferior scutella ; the inner toe much shorter than the outer,
which is connected with the third by a basal membrane ; on
the second or inner are eighteen, on the third thirty-two, on
the fourth twenty scutella ; the claws are very slender, slightly
arched, much compressed, acute.

The plumage is blended, on the upper parts somewhat
co]npact. The wings are long, reaching when closed to half
an inch from the tip of the tail, pointed, the first quill being-
longest, the rest rapidly decreasing ; one of the inner seconda-
ries seven-twelfths shorter than the longest primary ; the
tail is rounded, with the two middle feathers protnuled a
little beyond the rest.

The bill is black, with the base of the lower mandible of
a dusky flesh-colour ; the irides are brown ; the tarsi are
dusky, the toes darker, the claws black ; the forehead and a
broad band over and behind the eyes are white ; towards the
crown of the head is a patch of black ; the rest of the head
and the hind part of the neck are light brownish-red ; the
loral spaces and a band behind the eyes are black ; all the
lower parts, from the bill to the tail, and a band crossing the
neck behind, are white ; but there is a patch of black on each
side at the bend of the wing ; the upper parts are light
brownish-gi-ey ; the primary quills and their coverts brownish-
black ; the shafts of tlie former white for more than half their
length, the bases and a small ])art of the tips being brown.
Tlie outer secondaries are chiefly white, with more or less
greenish-brown, and tlieir coverts are tipped with wliite ; the

KENTISH RING-PLOVER. 127

inner sccoiularics like the back. The two middle tail feathers
are dusky, the two outer on each side white, the rest of in-
termediate shades.

Len<;th to end of tail G,''^ inches; extent of wings 14^;
win<; from flexure 4^ ; tail 2 ; bill alon*^ the rid|^e ,^2 > along
tlie edge of lower mandil)le ^\ ; l)are part of tibia ,^^ ; tarsus
[ !,• ; inner toe ,\, its claw ^^., ; middle toe ,'^3, its claw two-
twelfths and a half; outer toe j%, its claw ,-., .

Female in Si'mmek. — The female, which is scarcely
smaller, differs in colour chiefly in having the dark parts
tinged with brown, and the brownish-red on the licad and
neck paler.

Lengtli to end of tail (J,'^^ ; bill along the ridge /j ; Aving
from flexure 4^ ; tail '2 ; tarsus }^ ; middle toe,^„, its claw ^%.

II A HITS. — The Kentish Plover, so named by Latham, who
first described if from specimens shot at Sandwich in Kent,
and sent to him by Ur. Boys, has been found in various parts
of the counties of Kent, Essex, and Sussex, as well as in Nor-
folk, to the northward of which however it has not been met
with ; nor has it hitherto been seen on any part of the
western coast of Britain, or in Ireland. It is said to be very
extensively distributed on the Continent, being found from
the northern coasts of Germany to the shores of the Medi-
terranean. M. Temminck states that it occurs in India and
its islands, and Dr. Ilorsfield found it in Java. Its habits
may be supposed to be very similar to those of the Common
Ring-Plover ; but it does not appear that any person has
particularly described them, and I am imable to supply the
deficiency. The female is said to lay her four eggs in a
slight hollow in the sand. They are, according to Mr.
Yarrell, an inch and three-twelfths in length, eleven-twelfths
in l)readth, of a yellowish-stone colour, spotted, and streaked
with black.

YouN(;. — When fledged, the young differ from the adult
only in being destitute of the black patch on the head, and
in having the loral spaces, ear-coverts, and patch on each
side of the lower part of the neck, dusky broAvn.

129

CHARADRIUS MIXOR. THE LITTLE RING-
PLOVER.

LITTLE RINGED TLOVER. LITTLE RING DOTTEREL.

Petit Pluvier a collier. Charadrius minor. Temm. Man. d'Ornitli. II. 5i2.

Charaikius minor. Little Ringed Plover. Jen. Brit. Vert. Anim. 179.

Charadrius minor. Little Ring Dotterel. Gould, Bii-ds of Eui-ope.
iEgialites minor. Bonap. Comp. List, 45.

Length about six inches and a half; hill secen-ticelfths,
more than half the length of the head; icings shorter than
the tail. Adult with the upper parts grei/ish-hrorcn ; the
forehead with two bands, a xchite and a black ; the hind part
of the head light brownish-grey ; the loral space and a band
t/nder the eye and including the ear-coverts black; the throat
and a band crossing the hind-neck white, succeeded bg a ring
of brownish-black, narrowed behind; bill entirely black; feet
yellowish-flesh-coloured ; claws black. Young with the dark
markings on the head and neck brown; the feathers of the
upper parts margined with light red ; the base of the bill
pale yellowish.

Of this species it appears tliat only a single individual is
recorded as having been obtained in Britain. That indi-
vidual I have not seen, nor can I procure specimens for
description ; so that, on this occasion, I am obliged to have
recourse to the description and figures given by Messrs.
Temminck, Jeiiyns, Gould, and Yarrell.

Male in Summer. — The form of tliis bird is the same as
that of the Kentish Ring-Plover, -wliich it nearly e(iuals in
si/e ; but in colour it more resembles the Common Ring-
Plover. The bill is black in its whole length ; the iris

LITTLE RIXG-rLOVl-Il. 129

brown ; tlie feet yellowisli-Hesli-coltmred ; the claws black.
The anterior part of the forehead is white, succeeded by a
broad band of black ; tlie rest of the upper ])art of the head
brownish-f^rey. The loral space and a band passing- under
the eye and includinf; the ear-coverts black. A broad collar
of white including;- the throat is fidlowed by another of black,
which is broad in front and narrow behind. The upper
parts of the body, includi n^• tlu; wing-coverts, are <rreyish-
brown ; tlie lower parts pure white. Tiie primary quills and
coverts all ])rownisli-l)l;ick ; the outer secondary (piills of a
lighter tint, and edged witli white, as are their coverts, the
inner like the l)aek ; the outer ipiill alone with its shaft
white. The tail-feathers are greyish-brown, darker toward
tlu- vnd, all excepting tlu' two middle terminated with white,
that colour increasing in extent so as to include the whole of
the outer feather on each side, with the exception of a dusky
spot on its inner web.

Length to end of tail (U inches ; wing from flexure 4j''., ;
bill along the ridg(! ^'.,.

Female. — The female has the dark bands on the head
and neck of a lighter tint, but is otherwise similar.

Habits. — According to M. Tcmminck, this species " more
willingly frequents the margins of rivers than those of the
sea, occurs as a straggler or in the course of its migrations in
Holland, is more abundant in Germany, and in the south as
fixr as Italy. Its food consists of aquatic insects, their larva?,
and small worms. It forms its nest on the beach or in the
neighbouring pastures, laying from three to five oblong,
whitish eggs, marked with large black dots, and faint spots
of greyish-brown." Mr. Hoy, in Mr. Ilewitson's Avork on
the Eggs of British Birds, says : — " The Little Plover appears
to be very rarely found on the sea-coast, but frequents in
preference the banks of rivers, where it breeds. It lays its
eggs on the sand, not a particle of grass or other material
being used. It is very partial to sand banks, forming islands,
which are often met with in some of the larger rivers of the
Continent. It may also frequently be found during the

130 CHARADRIUS MIXOR.

breedings season upon those large extents of sand, which are
met with at some little distance from the borders of rivers,
overgi-O'svn in part with a coarse wiry pass." ]Mr. Hewitson
and Mr. Yarrell represent the egg as an inch and an eighth
in length, seven-eighths in breadth, pale greyish-yellow,
marked with numerous small spots of dark broAvn, reddish-
brown, and pale purplish-grey. A young individual of this
species, obtained at Shoreham, in Essex, is said to be in the
possession of Mr. Henry Doubleday, of Epping.

YorxG. — AVhcn fledged, the young, according to M.
Temminck, have the parts which in the adiilt are black of a
lighter tint ; the greyish-brown of the upper parts deeper,
and the feathers margined with light red ; the base of the
bill of a pale yellowish colour.

131

VANELLUS. LAPWING.

Thk I/cipwiiigs arc very intimately allied to the Plovers,
fVoiii which they diftev chieHy in havinf? a small hind toe,
and in the form of the Aving-, Avhieli, in place of heing narrow
and acuminate, is hroad toward the end and rounded. They
are heautiful and lively birds, varying in size from that of a
Ringed Plover to that of a AMiimbrel, and having the body
modi-rately full, the neck of ordinary length, the head rather
small, roundish, and anteriorly convex.

Hill shortish, straight, slender, compressed ; Tipper man-
dible with the dorsal outline straight and slightly declinate
for two-thirds of its length, then convexo-declinate to the
end, the edges soft and slightly inflected, the tip rather
obtuse, the nasal groove very long ; lower mandible with the
angle rather long and narroAv, the dorsal outline ascending
and slightly convex, the sides concave at the base, convex
towards the end, the edges inflected, the tip narrow but
blunt. Gape-line straight. Tongue soft, of moderate length,
slender, trigonal, channelled above, pointed. Fauces very
narrow. (Esophagus narrow, Avithout dilatation ; proventri-
culus small, its glands oblong ; gizzard veiy large and
powerful, its muscles distinct and extremely firm ; its cuti-
cular lining rugous ; intestine long ; coeca moderate, cylin-
drical.

Nostrils small, linear, pervious, sub-basal, near the
margin. Eyes large and full ; both eyelids densely feathered.
Aperture of ear rather large, roundish. Feet of moderate
length or long, very slender ; the tibia long, bare above
the joint ; tarsus of moderate length, or long, anteriorly
covered with numerous scutclla, laterally reticulated. Toes
short, slender, three before, the hind toe extremelv small,
the second a little shorter than the fourth, which is con-

132 VAXELLUS, LAPWING,

iiectcd with the third hy a hasiil weh, all margined, and
covered above with numerous narrow scutella. Claws short,
arched, compressed, slender, ohtuse.

Plumage ordinary, rather blended. AVings long, rounded,
of moderate breadth, with twenty-five quills ; the third pri-
mary longest, the first and seventh nearly equal ; the other
three primaries diminish very rapidly ; the outer secondaries
short and incurved, the inner tapering, and one of them
nearly as long as the tip of the wing when it is closed.
Tail straight, slightly arched at the base, broadish, rounded
or even, of twelve feathers, of A\hich the middle are not
acuminate.

The Lapwings and Plovers are similar in most respects,
so that they might, without miich impropriety, be considered
as sections of the same genus, rather than as distinct genera.
Their principal differences are these : — The Lapwings gene-
rally have longer legs, their tarsus is scutellate instead of
being reticulate ; their wings are rounded and broad towards
the end instead of being very narrow and pointed ; their
tail is even instead of having the middle feathers longer ;
they have a hind toe instead of none or an extremely dimi-
nutive one. Many Lapwings, now referred to the genus
liObivanellus, have fleshy or membranous a])pendages about
the head, and most of them have the metacarpal knob
pointed and covered with horn, constituting a spur.

In habits they resemble the Plovers. They belong nu)re
es])ccially to warm climates, frccpient marshy places, plains,
and heaths, as well as the shores of rivers, lakes, and the
sea. They feed on insects, Crustacea, moUusca, worms, and
sometimes seeds ; run with great celerity, fly with rapidity,
and utter a mellow, sometimes modulated note. The nest is
a slight hollow in the ground ; the eggs are four, pyrlform,
extremely large, and spotted. The young run innnediately
after birtli, and conceal themselves anu)ng the stones or
herl)ai;('.

Only one species occurs in Britain, where it is generally
(listriluited.

133

VANELLUS CRISTATUS. THE CRESTED
LAPWING.

PEWIT. PEESEWEEP. TUCHIT. GUEEX PLOVER. CUUOCIIDAG.

Tringa Vaaellus. Liun. Syst. Xat. I. 248.

Tringa Vanellus. Lath. Ind. Oniith. II. 726,

Lapwing. Mont. Ornith. Diet.

Yanneau huppe. Vanellus cristatus. Tomm. ^lan. d'Orn. II. -joO.

Crested or Green Lapwing. Vanellus cristatus. Selb. Illustr. Brit. Ornith.

II. 221.
Vanellus cristatus. Common Lapwing. Flem. Brit. Anim. 111.
Vanellus cristatus. Crested Lapwing. Jen. Brit. Vert. Anim. 182.
Vanellus cristatus. Bonap. Comp. List, 46.

A recurved occipital crest of linear feathers ; upper part
of /lead and fore part of neck black; tipper parts green,
lower trJiitc ; tail white, with a broad black band.

;M.\i.k. — The Lapwing, so named on account of its peculiar

mo(k' of flight, is one of the most beautiful of our native
birds, and among the most familiarly knoMU of the family to
Avhich it belongs. It is considerably larger than tlie Golden
Plover, Avhieh it resembles in form, aiul in many of its

134 V.\XELLUS CRISTATUS.

habits. Its body is moderately full, its neck rather short,
its head oblong and somewhat eonipressed, but roundcnl
above, being mueh elevated in front ; its legs slender and of
moderate length ; its wings very long and broadly rounded.
The bill is shorter tlian the head, straight, gently tapering,
rather slender, with the edges a little involute toward the
end, the nasal groove extending to two-thirds of the whole
length, tlie tip hard, narrow, and rather obtuse.

The niandil)les are internally concave, the aperture of the
posterior nares linear and margined Avitli pa])illa\ The
tongue papillate at the base, long, slender, concave above,
thin, horny, and involute toward the end, which is obtuse.
The oesophagus, which is six inches long, is of moderate
Avidth, without dilatation, the proventriculus somewhat bulbi-
form ; the stomach a strong gizzard, an inch and a half in
length, its muscles very thick, the epithelium dense, with
parallel rugtr. The intestine is twenty-six inches long,
nearlv uniform in diameter, its duodenal portion a third of
an inch across; the cocca, which are cylindrical, and two
and a half inches long, are three inches distant from the
extremity.

The eyes are rather large, their aperture being four and
a half twelfths in diameter. The nostrils linear, three-
twelfths long. The aperture of the ear measures four-
twelfths across. The tibiec are bare for about half-an-inch ;
the tarsus has about twenty-eight anterior scutella, the first
toe six, the second twenty, the third twenty-four, the fourth
twenty ; the claws are short, arched, compn^ssed, blunted ;
that of the hind toe conical. The carpal knob is blunt, and
covered by the skin.

Tlie plumage is very soft, on the neck and lower parts
blended, on the upper parts glossy and somewhat silky, but
imbricated ; on the head short. On the occiput is a recur-
vate, dc])endent, erectile, crest of about twenty uneciual
linear feathi'rs. TIk^ Avings are very long, of moderate
breadth ; the first (piill is scarcely an inch long, the second
three-fourths of an incli shorter than the fourth, which is
longest, and about the same length as the eighth. The pri-
maries broad and rounded ; the outer secondaries very broad

CRESTED LAPWING. 135

and ()l)li()ucly rouudcd ; the inner ])i-oad and tapcriny;. The
tail is of moderate lengtli, broad, (;ven, or very slij^^htly
emarjj^inatc, of twelve l)rt>ad, al)rn])t feathers.

The l)ill is brownisli-black ; the iris brown ; the feet dnll
crimson ; tlie chiws ])hick. Tlie Avhole u])per part of the
head, iiudndin^- the crest, is bhick, highly glossed with green
and bine ; ther(! are some white feathers on the sides of the
forehead and over the (>yes ; the sides of the head and neck
Avhite, bnt a black streak under the eyes ; tlie fore part of
the neck and a portion of the breast black, glossed with
green and bine ; the back, scapulars, and inner secondaries
are of a shining brownish-green, some of the feathers "with
purple, others with blue reilections, the scapulars ti})ped
with yellowish-white ; the smaller wing-coverts dark blue
glossed with green; the breast and abdomen pure white.
The primaries and outer secondaries are bluish-black, the
outer four primaries Avith brownish-white at the end ; the
carpal and primary lower wing-coverts black, the cubital
coverts and axillaries white, as is the basal half of the
secondary quills, their white portion, however, not being
visible on the upper surface of the wing ; the upper and
lower tail-coverts are light red ; the tail white, w'ith a broad
terminal band of black, broadest on the middle feathers, and
forming only a spot on the inner web of the outer.

Length to end of tail lo inches ; extent of wings 30 ; wing
from flexure O^j ; tail 4;^ ; bill along the ridge 1, along the
edge of lower mandible If^; tarsus IJi; first toe i^^, its
claw,l ; second toe 1?, its clawf^; third toe Ifa, its claw j'i ;
fourth toe \], its claw ,1.

Female. — The female is similar, differing only in having
the tints of the head and fore-neck somcAvhat lighter, and the
hind-neck broAvnish-grey. The crest is also less elongated.

Length to end of tail 12^ inches ; extent of aa ings 29 ;
bill along the ridge 1 ; tarsus 1|"; middle toe and chnv l^j.

Variations.— Albino individuals, of a pure Avhite or
cream colour, haAC been seen, but very rarely. Otherwise
the variations are not remarkable.

136 VANELLUS CKISTATUS.

Ck-^xges of Plumage. — The moult commences in June,
and is completed hy the beginning of November.

;Mat,k in Summeu. — In the breeding season, the nppcr
and fore parts of the head, the chin, throat, and ])art of the
breast are black, glossed -with blue and green ; the nape
greyish-brown ; the colours of the other parts as in winter.
As the smnmer advances, the green of the back changes to
purj)lisli. An individual shot at Ythan Mouth, on the i27th
of May, presented no new feathers, except those on the
throat and fore-neck. The opsophagns 6 inches long ; the
gizzard I12 by i"; the intestine !29 inches long, from i-, to
i'o in width ; the coeca 3 inches from the extremity, cylin-
drical, ~j inches long.

liCngth 12j inches ; extent of AvingN 30^ ; bill 1 ; Aving
from liexure O^- ; tail 4 ; bare part of tibia y, ; tarsus 2 ;
middle toe jl, its claw i^.

Fkmai.e in Simmer. — The female differs only in having
the breast white, and the crest shorter.

IlAiiiis. — The Lapwing is generally distribxited, but more
numerous in the southern than in the northern parts of the
country ; it being of very rare occurrence in the extreme
north of Scotland and in the Hebrides. On downs, com-
mons, and in uncultivated marshy tracts, it is met with more
frequently than in districts entirely subjected to the plough ;
but often on cultivated land, when the fields are large, it is
to be seen in great numbers. After it has reared its young,
it forms flocks, often of great size, and remains on the moors,
the inland fields, or in their vicinity, until the middle or
end of autmnn, when it betakes itself to the lower grounds,
and occupies the wet plains and large ploughed fields. Its
food consists of worms, insects, and occasionally seeds and
other vegetable substances. Its gizzard, which is nearly as
muscular as tliat of a gallinaceous bird, is found to contain
numerous bits of hard stone, generally (juartz, from two-
tweli'ths of an inch in diameter downwards. In searching
for food, it walks sedately along, keeping its body horiz(.)ntal,

CRESTED LAPWING. 137

and its legs sH^litly bciit, st()i)pin<;- now and tlit'ii (o look
around, wlu-n, should it apprehend danger from the intrusion
of a person walking in the fields, it utters its -well-known
cry, resenihling tlie syllabli-s pec-iccc, or pve-o-U'ce, rises on
win"-, and either flies about or removes to a distance. A
large flock, whether on the ground or on wing, is always
interesting to the observer of natural objects, who finds
amusement where others see nothing but bare fields or
barren moors. Its mode of flying is peculiar, for it sedately
flaps its broadly-rounded wings, which seem extraordinarily
large, partly because of their black colour beneath, as con-
trasted with the pure white of the body. When proceeding
to a distant place, they fly with great speed, usually in an
irregular body, but sometimes arranging themselves in lines,
and generally in silence, and before alighting they perform
various evolutions. On settling, they stand for some time
(juietly, and look around ; and should they perceive no indi-
cation of danger, scatter about. Although very shy and
vigilant in places that are much frequented, they are not so
timorous when unaccustomed to molestation ; yet, under all
circumstances, they are less easily approached than the
Golden Plovers. They can scarcely be said to associate with
any oth(>r species, although they may be seen in the same
field with Plovers, Hooks, and Gidls. In winter they ap-
proach the sea-shore, and at low water often betake them-
selves to the sands or muddy flats, to search for Crustacea
or mollusca ; but they never at any season fairly take up
their residence on the coasts. In the northern and part of
the niiddle divisions of Scotland, they migrate southward in
Avinter, part of them remaining only when the weather is
mild, or in peculiarly favourable places, such as the shores of
the Beauly Firth.

In the middle of ^larch, should the Aveather be good,
they return to the higher gi-oimds and unfrequented pastiu'es.
Frequently about this season, however, boisterous Aveather sud-
denly comes on, accompanied with snoAv or hail ; and this so
commonly happens in the eastern districts of the middle divi-
sion of ScQtland, that the people ahvays expect what they call
the " Tuchit's storuij" about the time of the arrival of that

138 VANELLUS CRISTATUS-

Avt'll-known l)ii(l. Thus ^Ir, Robertson, in his Agriculhiral
Survey of Kincardineshire, snys : — "The Green Plover, or
Peas-AAeep, arrives here so very correctly about Candlemas
tei-ni, that the storni which generally happens at that season
of the year goes by its name (the Tchuchet stonn)." Many of
them, however, betake themselves to the \-icinity of marshes
and moors, in any situation, or to the downs or links, or
disperse over the fields. Their nests, which are slightly
constructed, being often merely a few straws or blades laid
in a shallow caAaty, are found sometimes on an exposed slope
or level part of the moors, where the herbage is short, some-
times on tufts in the midst of a bog or morass, sometimes on
the bare open ground in a field, and, owing to its nature
and the colours of the eggs, is not readily perceived. Should
one approach it, the female runs off long before he comes
up, and both she and the male fly about, now high, now
low, suddenly descending and rising, in gentle curves or
abrupt windings, and performing a variety of evolutions,
sometimes striking their wings so forcibly as to cause a loud
noise, and usually emitting their peevish wail. So great is
their anxiety, that they will frequently come very near, and
may thus be easily shot on such occasions. Should other
pairs be in the neighbourliood, sonu^ of them will also fly
up, and join in the performance. ^Meanwhile, the female
will perhaps steal away quietly to some distance, and run
limpingly along, with the most innocently pitiable appear-
ance imaginable, stopping now and then as if to attract your
attention, and entice you ofl" in pursuit. Or she may go
farther away, and hanging out one or both of lu>r wings, run
coweringly along. So excellent is the simulation, that one
can hardly refrain from pursuing, even although smiling at
his folly. It is needless to state, that no one has any chance
of catcliing one of these lame Lapwings. AVlien a dog
approaches their nest, they arc still more active in attempting
to intimidate or bewilder hiui, and sometimes will even hit
him with one of their wings.

During the whole of the breeding season, even when not
disturbed, but acting umler the impulse of their natural
instinct, they may be seen flying about, hovering, gliding.

CHESTED LAPWING. 139

sLiutiuii;, iiinl curving aloiiy, sliuutiiiy through the air with a
continuous noise of the wings, or causing an unduUited loud
Imni l)y flapping them strongly, and at the same time emit-
ting various moditications of their usual cry. This l)ehaviour
is, no doubt, analogous to the aerial rambles of the Snipe at
the same season. The Golden Plover also exhibits a similar
tendency, but it flies more sedately, not indulging in these
fanciful freaks, although it utters a cry diflerent from its
usual whistle.

The eggs are four, very large for the size of tlu; bird, but
much smaller than those of the Golden Plover, and, like
them, pyriform, their average length an inch and ten-
twelfths, their greatest breadth an inch and a quarter, or
somewhat less. They are generally pale brownish-yellow,
blotched, spotted, and dotted with brownish-black ; but their
ground-colour varies to greenish-gi*ey, or olivaceous, and the
markings are various, being small or large, thickly or sparely
distributed. The young are closely covered with soft down,
variegated with greyish-yellow, brown, and black, and leave
the nest immediately after exclusion, crouching among the
moss or herbage when alarmed. So long as they remain
motionless, it is almost impossible to perceive them ; but the
anxiety of their parents often betrays their place of refuge,
for they will fly up, screaming, flapping, and wheeling about.
The eggs are considered delicate food, and are sold as such
in London ; but I am not aAvare of their being brought to
the markets in Scotland. Lapwings themselves are not
much inferior to Golden Plovers in this respect, and in
winter and spring are not uncommon in the markets of the
larger towns south of the Forth. In the north of Scotland,
however, the flesh of this bird, which is dark-coloured, and
seldom fat, does not seem to be held in much estimation.

Young fledged. — When fully fledged, the young have
the bill dusky, the feet dull olive-brown, the iris dark-brown.
The crest is as yet short, and the feathers in general are
much less compact and glossy than in the adult, but the
colour is the same. The sides of the forehead, the cheeks,
and the throat are white ; there is a black streak under the

140 VAXELLUS CRISTATUS.

eye, and nimierous spots of tlie same between it and the
throat. In other respects there is no great difference, only
most of tlie feathers of the npper parts are terminally mar-
gined with pale red.

Progress towaud ^Iatvrity. — The colours are per-
fected after the first moult.

Remarks. — The above account being entirely the result
of my own observation of a bird whose habits arc easily
studied, and of Avliich specimens can readily be procured, I
have here to add such particulars as, having escaped my
notice, or being beyond my reach, it may yet be interesting
to know. The only additional circumstance which I find in
Montagu's article on the subject is, that " it runs fast, and
has a singular motion of the head, frequently putting its bill
to the ground without picking anything up." Mr. Selby
repeats this observation : — " it runs swiftly, during which it
has a singular habit of stopping suddenly at intervals, and
putting its bill to the ground, but without picking up any-
thing;" and adds, "apparently to bring its body, as it Avere,
to a proper equipoise." I have often observed it, both when
it stopped after running a little, and on other occasions, to
stoop a little forward, and depress its head, presently to
raise it again, and sometimes stretch it up a little. The
latter author also alludes to its being frequently kept in
gardens on account of its devouring slugs, insects, and larvte ;
and states that " when thus domesticated, it requires to be fed
and protected during the severity of winter, as it is, in such
situations, unable to obtain a sufficient supply of its native
food." In Ireland, however, where the climate is milder,
Mr. Thompson says, " 1 have known lapwings to be kept some
years in gardens (even foui- or five birds in one garden),
during: Avhich tinu^ thev lived whollv on what they could
pick up, no food being supplied to them."

According to M. Temminck, it is " noAvhere so abundant
as in Holland," and other authors give it an extended dis-
tribution over Europe and Asia.

STRKPSILAS. TURNSTONE.

Bill a little sliorter than the head, slightly Lent uj)\var(ls
beyond the middle, compressed until towards the end ; upjjer
inaudible with its dorsal outline slightly concave, the ridge
somewhat flattened, but towards the end convex, the sides
sloping at the base, afterwards convex, the edges rather
sharp and slightly inflected, the tip depressed and blunt ;
lower mandible with the angle narrow, the dorsal outline
ascending and slightly convex, the ridge rounded, the sides
slo])ing outwards and grooved at the base, convex towards
the end, the edges a little involute, the tip depressed and
blunt. The nasal groove occupies one half" of the length of
the bill, and the gape-line is very slightly recurvate.

Eyes of moderate size, margins of eyelids papillate.
Aperture of ear transversely oblong, of moderate size. Nos-
trils sub-basal, linear, lateral, perforate, the nasal groove
bare. The body is ovate and rather full, the neck rather
short, the head oblong, of considerable size, and rounded in
front. The feet are slender and of moderate length. Tibia
bare for a short space ; tarsus rather short, somewhat com-
pressed, anteriorly covered with numerous scutella ; toes
three before, of moderate length, slightly webbed at the
base, the third longest, the second a little shorter than the
fourth, the first very small; claws short, compressed, arched,
obtuse, that of the hind toe sharper and more curved.

Plumage rather compact above, blended beneath, very
short on the fore part of the head and on the middle of the
back ; scapulars elongated and narrow. Wings long, narrow,
pointed ; quills twenty-six ; primaries tapering, the first
longest, the rest rapidly gi'aduatcd ; outer secondaries short,
incurved, obliquely rounded with a point ; inner greatly

142 STREPSILAS. TURNSTONE.

elongated and tapering. Tail ratlier short, a little rounded,
of twelve straight, ratlier broad and rounded feathers.

This genus is very intimately allied to Hsematopus,
agreeing Avith it in almost every particular, excepting the
form of the hill, Avhich, hesides heing shorter, is depressed,
instead of being compressed, at the end. Only one species
is as yet known, of which, however, the distribution has
been traced to the greater part of Eiu'ope, the Cape of Good
Hope, various countries of Asia, Australia, and the northern
parts of America.

143

STRErSILAS INTEHrRES. THE COLLARED
TURNSTONE.

Fig. 13.

Tringa Interpres. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 248.
Tringa Morinella. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 249,
Tringa Interpres. Lath. Ind. Om. II. 738.
Turnstone. ^lont. Om. Diet.
Tourne-pierre a coUier. Strcpsilas collaris
Strcpsilas interpres. Common Turnstone.
Common Turnstone
Strepsilas Interpres.

Temm. Man. d'Om. II.'553.
Flcm. Brit. Anim, 110.
Strepsilas Interpres. Selb. lUustr. II. 204.
Common Turnstone. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 182.

Strepsilas Interpres. Bonap. Comp. List, 46.

In tri/ifer, the middle of the hack and the lower parts
white, the fore-neck black, the tipper parts hlackish-hroicn.
In summer, the vpper parts variegated icith black and
broicnish-red.

Male. — The Turnstone, wliicli obtains its name ficni a
supposed habit of shifting or overturning small stones -Nvliile
searching amongst them for food, is a lively and handsome
bird, about the size of the Dotterel. Although so much

114 STREPSILAS ENTERPllES.

smaller, it is very similar to the Oyster-catcher in form, as
Avell as in habits. There hein<»- no other species known, it is
unnecessary to repeat here those particulars which have been
given in the generic character. The tongue is ten twelfths
of an inch long ; the oesophagus four inches, with an average
diameter of three twelfths ; the stomach one inch ; the intes-
tine eighteen inches ; the coeca nearly two inches. On the tarsus
are twenty-five scutella, on the first toe six, on the second
eighteen, on the third twenty-six, on the fourth twenty-two.

The bill is black, the base of the lower mandible tinged
with red, the throat pale flesh-colour ; the iris brown, the
feet orange, the claws black. The general colour of the
upper parts is dark brown, glossed with green and purple,
the feathers edged with pale brown, the fore part and sides
of the head brownish-white, spotted with black. The throat
is white ; a band on each side from the lower mandible, tlio
side of the head behind the ear-coverts, and the fore part of
the neck black, the feathers slightly edged Avith whitish;
the rest of the loAver parts pure white, as are the hind part of
the back and the upper tail-coverts, some of the rump
feathers, however, being black. The tail is Avhite at the
base, brownish-black towards the end, edged externally with
light broAvn, the outer Aveb of the outer and the tips of all
excepting the two middle white. The primary quills and
coverts are brownish-black, the secondaries more brown ; all
in their lower part, the outer secondaries at their extremities,
and the shafts of the primaries white, of Avhich colour also
are the tips of the secondary coverts, and the tertiaries or hu-
merals, together with some of tlie smaller wing coverts.

Length to end of tail 9^ inches ; extent of wings 18^ ;
bill along the ridge } .', , along the edge of lower mandible J ;,';
wing from flexure ()j'^ ; tail t2^ ; tarsus 1/.,; fii'st toe ^\,
its claw /-., ; second toe ,\ , its claw ,\ ; third toe \l, its
claw ■[, ; fourth toe ^\, its claw ,-.,.

Female. — The fci!ial(> differs only in having the black
parts more tinged with brown.

Ijcngth to end of tail 1){^ inches ; extent of wings 18^ :
bill along the ridge T^, along the edge of lower mandible 1.

COLLARED TUllNSTONE. 145

Variations. — In adult iudividuals tlic only variations
that I liiivo observed consisted of a <;Tcater or less intensencss
of tint.

CiiAxoES OF Plumagk. — Tlio moult commcnros in Sep-
tember and is completed by the end of November, Nvhen the
colours are as described above. A partial moult takes place
in the be^inninp^ of summer, so that durinjj^ the breeding
season the birds present the followin"^ ap])earanee : —

Male ix SrM:MER. — The forehead, loral s])ace, throat,
and a patch on the nape, -svhite, as are all the parts described
as such above. A narrow band across the forehead, passin<^
under the eye, another from the base of the lower mandible,
and the fore })art and sides of the neck, glossy black ; the
top of the head rcddisli-Avhite streaked with black ; the fore
part of the back, the scapulars, and many of the wing-coverts
light chestnut with spots of black, the central part of each
feather being of the latter colour.

Female in Simmer. — The female is similar to the male,
but has the colours less deep, and the white on the neck less
pure.

The descriptions of the male and female in Avinter
plumage are taken from two individuals shot by myself in
the island of Harris, on the -Ith December 1817; and those
of the birds in summer, from foreign specimens, and an in-
dividual shot in Fifeshire in the autumn of 183G.

Habits. — The Turnstones appear on our coasts in the
end of October, and remain until the beginning of Mav. The
latest period at which I have seen them was the 1-lth of May,
on which day (1831) I shot one out of a large flock near
Prestonpans on the Firth of Forth. In the outer Hebrides,
they frequent the rocky shores in flocks varying from half-a-
dozen to twenty individuals, and are not generally shy, but
may be easily approached when feeding. Although they eat
coleopterous insects, their food consists chiefly of small shell-
fish, Crustacea, and marine worms, which they search for

146 STEPSILAS Es^TERPRES.

among the fuci, in the crevices of the rocks, and among the
stones and gravel, seklom or never making- their appearance
on the sands or in muddy phices. Their flight is Hke tliat of
the Oyster-catcher, rapid on occasion, performed hy regularly
timed heats, often direct, hut frequently in semicircular
curves. They run ahout with great celerity, occasionally
utter a mellow note, and sometimes associate with Kinged
Plovers and Oyster-catchers, although when flying they gene-
rally keep apart. Owing to the pure white on their hack,
the bar of the same colour on the wings, the blackish tint of
the upper parts, and the form of their long pointed wings,
they present a very beautiful appearance when flying. It is
not less interesting to watch them as they are feeding on the
shore, when, however, I have not observed them turning over
the stones, as it is alleged they do. I have indeed seen them
on stony beaches, where frequently Ring Plovers were also
engaged in searching for food, and have observed them poking
their bills into the spaces between the stones, and extracting
small objects from the crevices; and had nearly given up
their alleged stone-turning habits as a flible. But Mr.
Aiulubon, in the fourth volume of his Ornithological Biogra-
phy, relates an actually observed instance of the fact. On
a beach in Galveston Island, he and a sailor, carrying the
carcass of a deer to the water to be washed, met with four
Turnstones. " They merely ran a little distance out of our
course, and on our returning, came back immediately to the
same place ; this they did four difierent times, and, after we
were done, they remained busily engaged in searching for
food. None of them was more than fifteen or twenty yards
distant, and I was delighted to see the ingenuity with which
they turned over the oyster-shells, clods of mud, and other
small bodies left exposed by the retiring tide. Whenever
the object was not too large, the bird bent its legs to half
their length, placed its bill beneath it, and with a sudden
quick jerk of the head pushed it oif, when it quickly picked
up the food Avhich was thus exposed to view, and walked
deliberately to the next shell to perform the same operation.
In several instances, when the clusters of oyster-shells or
clods of mud were too heavy to be removed in the ordinary

COLLARED TURNSTONE. 147

\v;iv, they would not only use the ])ill and head, Itut also the
breast, pushiiij; the object with all their stren^^th, and reniind-
in'r me of the labour which 1 have undergone in turning-
over a large turtle, Among the sea-weeds that had been
cast on the shore, they used only the bill, tossing the garbage
from side to side, with a dexterity extremely pleasant to
l)ehold. In this manner I saw these four Turnstones ex-
amine almost every part of the shore along a space of from
thirty to forty yards ; after which I drove them away, that
our hunters might not kill them on their return." The flesh
of this bird is not so delicate as that of the Plovers, but
rather resembles that of tlie Oyster-catcher. It has been
observed along all the coasts of England, but has never been
found breeding in any part of Britain, nor indeed has any
credible person seen it there in the summer months. M.
T(Mnminck states that it " nestles in the north ; forms a slight
hollow in the sand of the shores, and lays three or four eggs
of a gTcyish, olive, or greenish colour, marked with brown
spots." This species is very extensively distributed along
the coasts of Eui-ope, Africa, Asia, Australia, and America.
Mr. Gould remarks : — " If any bird may be regarded as cos-
mopolite it is the Turnstone, for it inhabits the sea-shores of
every part of the globe."

YouxG FLEDGED. — The young when fully fledged have
the upper parts greyish-l)rown, the feathers darker in the
centre ; the throat is brownish-white,the loral space broAvnish-
gi-ey, and there is no white on the nape ; the fore -neck is
dark brown, the feathers edged with whitish, the rest of the
lower parts, the back, excepting a band on the rump, a
band on the wing, and the tail, excepting a dusky band across
it, pure white. The bill is dusky, at the base lighter, the
feet light orange. In, this state, but with some of the
second set of feathers interspersed, the young birds arrive
here.

Progress toward maturity. — In winter the young
have assumed the appearance of the adults as described above,
only that their dark tints are lighter.

148 STREPSILAS INTERPRES.

TvEMAKKS. — M. Tomminck is of opinion that this bird
moults only once in the year ; but, in the first place, I have
never met Avith a single individual killed in winter, that had
any red on its plumage ; and, secondly, both before their
departure and after their arrival individuals of the summer
plumage as described above arc met with. A specimen
killed on Winter Island, on the 14tli of June, 1822, is marked
as follows.

Male in Summer. — Bill black; feet reddish-orange,
claws black ; the upper part of the head white, with broadish
longitudinal streaks of greenish-black edged with pale brown.
The sides of the head and upper hind neck greyish-white,
with faint brownish streaks. A brownish-black band extends
across the forehead ; a similar band on each side from the
base of the lower mandible ; these bands unite with a patcli
of greenish-black occupying the cheek ; and frcmi this a band
of the same colour proceeds down the neck, enlarging below
and meeting its fellow in front, forming a large greenish-
black patch on the lower part of the neck and fore part of
the breast, and extending backAvards to the hiiul neck, and
below to the axilla. The lower part of the hind neck, the
scapulars, and the wing-coverts are pale chestnut brown,
with irregular patches of gi-eenish-black ; the middle and hind
parts of the back are white; a broad brownish-black bar
across the rump ; the tail-coverts white. The tail is Avliite,
with a transverse bar of blackish-brown, broadest in the
middle, wlu^rc it nearly includes all the exposed part, except
the tip. A spot on the side of the forehead, the throat, and
the upper part of the fore neck, the breast, the belly, and the
lower tail-coverts, the axillary feathers, and the lower wing-
coverts are ]nire white. The primaries are light blackish-
broAvn, the shafts more or less white, as are the inner edges.
A band of white extends across the secondaries, excepting the
inner six, wliich are pale blackish-brown, with large spots of
pale chestnut-brown ; the secondary coverts are also white.

149

lI.EMATOPUS. OYSTER-CATCHER.

•

Bill lonj^, sliglitly bout upwards beyond the middle,
jxMitagoual and about as high as broad at the base, where it
is covered by a soft skin which extends nearly to the middle ;
beyond this extremely coni})ressed, and, when viewed verti-
cally, gradually taperin<^ to a point ; when viewed laterally,
contracting a little from the base to before the nostrils, then
enlarging before the nasal groove, and afterwards gradually
sloping, but not forming a point, the tips being more or less
abrupt. This attenuation of the mandibles is not the original
form, but is produced by their being rubbed against hard
substances. Upper mandible with the dorsal line slightly
declinate at the base, then more or less bent upwards, the
ridge broad, convex at the base, gradually narrowing to the
tip, the sides at the base sloping, towards the end erect, the
edges soft and rounded at the base, rather sharp and hard
towards the end ; lower mandible Avith the angle rather long
and acute, the dorsal line a little convex, the sides and edges
as in the upper mandible. !Moutli narrow ; upper mandible
within flat, the edges projecting but slightly ; palate soft,
with six rows of conical papilkc directed backwards, three
on each side of the nasal slit ; lower mandible within but
slightly concave. Tongue very short, fleshy, sagittate and
papillate behind, flat above, the tip entire. The a>sophagus is
narrow, dilates a little about the middle, and terminates in
an oblong proventriculus, surrouiulcd with oblong glandules.
Gizzard large, niuscidar, oblong, with the muscles distinct,
the tendons radiated ; the cuticular lining tough, rather thin,
with prominent transverse rugir. Intestine slender, nearly
uniform in diameter, with two cylindrical rather long coeca ;
the cloaca elliptical.

Eyes of moderate size, margins of eyelids bare and papil-

150 H^MATOPUS. OYSTER-CATCHER.

late. Aperture of ear transversely oblong, very small. Nos-
trils linear, sub-basal, direct, about the middle of the long-
nasal groove, -which is filled -with a bare skin. The general
form is compact, the body muscular, the neck rather long
and thick, the head rather small and oblong, the forehead
convex.

Feet long and stout ; tibia bare about a third up ; tarsus
compressed, rounded before and behind, covered anteriorly
■with hexagonal scales, laterally and posteriorly -svith scales
of the same form but smaller. Toes three before (the first
■wanting), spreading, short, depressed, covered above -with
numerous narrow transverse scutella, and having thick broad
margins, -which, -with the very broad flat soles, are covered
-with roundish papilla? ; the second or inner toe shortish, the
fourth a little longer, the third considerably longer ; outer
and middle toes with the margins dilated and united at the
base, so as to form a short Aveb ; which is also the case Avith
the middle and inner, but in a much smaller degree. Claws
very small, very slightly arched, narrow, obtuse.

Plumage soft and glossy, blended, somewhat distinct on
the back, on the middle of which it is very short, as well as
on the forehead. Feathers of hind-neck very soft and loose ;
scapulars elongated, narrow. The feathers in general ovate
or lanceolate, with a considerable tufty plumule. Wings
long, acute ; quills thirty ; primaries with very strong shafts ;
the outer fourteen secondaries short, curved inwards and
obliquely rounded ; the rest narrow, tapering, and some of
them elongated so as nearly to equal the first primary Avhen
the wing is closed. Tertiaries short. Tail rather short,
broadish, nearly even, of twelve straight, broad, rounded
feathers.

One of the most remarkable circumstances connected
with this genus is the attenuated wedge-like form of tlie bill,
which is produced by attrition, that organ being used for
detaching limpets, balani, and other shells frcmi the rocks. In
the young bird the bill is not comjncssed towards the end,
and the xip])er mandible has the tij) a little declinate and
longer than that of the lower. In this respect the species of
this genus resemble those of the genera iStrepsilas and

H^MATOl'US. OYSTEK-CATCIIKK. 101

Cinclus. Tlic claws also avo at first arutc, and hccoiuo
blunted by nsc.

The species greatly resemble each other in form and size.
Tlie bill in all is of a vermilion or oranj^c tint, and the
colours of the plumage are either black and Avhite, or the
former alone. One; or other of the species is found in almost
every known country. They reside on the sea-shore, and
live on mollusca and Crustacea. " I believe," Mr. Gould
remarks, " that there is no country of the -world of any
extent, the shores of which are not inhabited by one or other
of the numerous species of this genus ; but it would seem
that all those Avhich exist in the southern hemisphere are
totally different from those of the northern."

In Britain, indeed in Europe, there occurs only one
species, which is easily distinguished from that of America,
although they were confounded by Wilson.

1. //. Ostralegus. The head, neck, and back deep greenish-
black ; the throat often half'-ringod Avith white. Europe.

2. H. jxdllatus. The head and neck brownish-black; the
back greyish-brown. America.

The name Haematopus, or Bloody-foot, given to this
genus by Linnaeus, was sufficiently appropriate so long as
only the European s])ecios Avas known ; but Avhcn it is con-
sidered that another has the feet flesh-colour, a second pink,
and a third white, the generic name becomes quite inappli-
cable. It might be expedient, therefore, to follow Lesson in
having recourse to Brisson's name Ostralega, although, as
the former author observes, " it is not itself happily chosen,
for although several Oyster-catchers live on shell-fish, they
do not eat oysters. Ostralegus, hoAvever, signifies merely
shell-gatherer, and in so far is correct enough, although not
distinctive, for manv birds are shell-gatherers.

152

H^MATOPUS OSTRALEGUS. THE PIED
OYSTER-CATCIIER.

SEA PIE. SEA riET. PIANET. CIIOLLDRICK. TRILLACHAX. TRILLACHAX-

T11AGIL\ID.

Fio. 14.

Haematopus Ostralegus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 2o".

Hsematopus Ostralegus. Lath. Ind. Omith. IL 752.

Oyster-catcher. Mont. Omith. Diet.

L'lluiterier Pie. Haematopus Ostralegus. Temm. Man. d'Oruith. II. 531.

Hicmatopus Ostralegus. Common Oyster-eatcher. Flem. Brit. Anim. 115.

Common Oyster-catcher. Haematopus Ostralegus. Selby Illustr. Brit.

Omith. II. 200.
Haematopus Ostralegus. Pied Oyster-catcher. Jen. Brit. Vert. Anim. 184.
Hicmatopus Ostralegus. Bonap. Comp. List, 46.

BUI vermilion ; feet purplish-red ; head, iiee/c, fore part
of Back, icings, and terminal half of tail Black; the rest
uhite. k

M.\LE. — This beautiful and not uncommon bird is nearly
as large as the Curlew, of a compact form, rather robust,
with a longish neck ; ratlun- small, oblong head ; stout,
though rather long legs ; shortish, rounded tail ; and wings

PIED OYSTEU-CATCIIKR. 153

riMcliiiii;' when closed nearly to the U[) of" the latter. The
bill is about twice the len<;th of the head, sli<^htly bent
upwards, rather stout, compressed, being of greater height
than breadth in its whole length, uiuch narroAved toward
the ti]), which is abrupt, and sonu'what Avedge-shaped. IJotli
mandibles are grooved for more than a third of their length,
at first gradually narrowed, Avhcn viewed laterally, toward
the middle enlarging consideraldy, and then gently con-
tracting ; the edges sharp, but strong ; and the gai)e-linc,
which commences far before the eyes, very slightly re-
areuate.

The mouth is very narrow ; its roof nearly Hat ; the
tongue short, eight-and-a-half-twelfths long, triangular, emar-
ginate and ])apillate at the base, thin, fleshy, ta])ering to a
blunt point. The a>sophagus seven inches hmg, at first
eight-twelfths in width, but enlarging to an inch and a half,
then narrowed half-an-inch. The proventriculus oblong, an
inch and a twelfth in breadth, Avith simple oblong glandules.
The stomach, an inch and ten-twelfths in length, and an inch
and a half in breadth, has the lateral muscles rather large
and distinct, the epithelium rather thin, dense, elevated on
its inner surface into rugae, which are longitudinal, and at
the upper and lower parts curiously puckered. The intes-
tine is four feet three inches long, slender, nearly uniform in
diameter, its width being three-twelfths and a half. At the
distance of three inches and a half from its extremity come
off the co?ca, Avhich are three inches and a tAvelfth in length,
cylindrical, two-tAvelfths and a half in breadth. The rectum,
not much Avidcr than the intestine, enlarges into a globular
cloaca.

The nostrils are sub-basal, linear, four-and-a-half-twelfths
long. The eye four-twelfths in breadth. The aperture of
the ear nearly of the same size. The tibia is bare for nine-
twelfths ; the tarsus rather short, stout, and covered with
hexagonal scales ; the toes three, rather short, broadly mar-
ginate, fiat beneath ; the inner with twelve, the middl(> toe
with twenty-tAvo, the outer AA^th only eight scutella. The
claAvs are small, httle curA-ed, rather depressed, and obtuse.

The plmnage is glossy ; blended on the head, hind neck.

loi H^MATOPUS OSTRALEGUS.

and abdomen ; firm and imbricated on the npper parts ; the
feathers generally oblong- and rounded. The wings are long,
and acute ; the first quill longest, the other primaries rapidly
gi'aduated, tapering, and obliquely rounded ; the secondaries
twenty, the outer fourteen rather short, curved inwards, and
obliquely rounded, the rest narrow, tapering, some of them
greatly elongated. The tail is rather short, slightly rounded,
and repand, the middle and lateral feathers being a little
shorter than the rest.

The bill is vermilion tinged with yellow as far as the end
of the nasal gi-oove, the attenuated part dull yellow. The iris
crimson, the edges of the eyelids vermilion. The feet are pale
lake or purplish-red. The head, the neck all round, the fore
part of the back, the scapulars, wing-coverts, quills, and ter-
minal half of the tail, are dc^ep greenish-black. The breast,
abdomen, sides, lower wing-coverts, middle and hind part of
the back, and the up])er and lower tail-coverts, are pure white.
A broad band of the same colour passes across the wing, in-
cluding the greater portion of all the secondary quills excepting
the inner, and forming two oblong patches, one on the inner,
the other on the outer web of the primaries, the outer of these
patches being reduced on the first and second quills to a mere
line on the shaft ; the terminal half of the secondary coverts,
and the tips of the inner primary coverts, are Avliite ; and there
are some white feathers on the outer edge of the wing. A band
of white crosses the throat, rising on each side to behind the
ears ; on the lower eyelid is a greyish-Avhitc mark ; and there
are some minute whitish feathers along the base of both
mandibles.

Length to end of tail IT inches ; extent of wings 35 ;
wing from flexure 10^ ; tail 5 ; bill along the ridge 2^, along
the ridge f)f lower mandible 2f ; tarsus 1^4; inner toe 1, its
claw j'-j ; middle toe 1^, its claw -j^^; outer toe l-i22-, its daw-j^.

Female. — The female resembles the male in colour, and
differs little in size, being however larger. Oesophagus seven
inches long ; gizzard two inches in length, an inch and three-
fourths in breadth ; intestine five feet one inch long ; rectum
three inches and a half; co^ca four inches and a half.

rii:i) OYSTER-CATCHER. loo

Length to end of tail 1S:|- inches; extent of wmgs 36;
■\vin<i: ^"it"» tlexuiv 10,"^,; tail 5; hill alon}^ the ridge 8-^,
along the edge of lower nnuidible 3-pV ; hare part of tihia -f^;
tarsns 2; inner toe 1, its elaw J^; middle toe 1-j^, its
claw yV ; outer toe l^v, its claw j\.

Variations. — Considerahle differences occur in the size
of individuals, aiul es])eeially in the length and shape of the
bill. Slight variations of tint in the black parts are per-
ceptible, the head and neck being more or less tinged with
gvey, the wings and tail with brown. The presence or
absence of white markings on the neck are also remarkable,
some birds having two spots on the neck behind the ears,
others a band across the throat, others irregular Avhite
markings, and many none. The bill varies in length from
three inches and a half to little more than two.

Changes of Plimage. — The black of the head and
other parts becomes a little faded as the plumage becomes
old, but I have not observed any other changes. The partial
spring moult spoken of by many authors I have not de-
tected, birds at all seasons occurring with the varieties as to
the white marks on the neck mentioned above.

IIahits. — The Sea Pie occurs on all our coasts, on many
parts of which it is abundant, but nowhere more so than in
the Scottish Islands. After the breeding season it forms
flocks, which are frequently very numerous, being composed
of from twenty to a hundred or more individuals. At this
period they are met with chiefly on the low rocky shores, or
at the mouths of rivers, where, at low water, they obtain
their food, which consists of patellae, balani, small bivalve
shells swallowetl entire, young crabs, and other marine
animals. Although frecpiently seen on extensive open sands,
they seem rather to betake themselves thither for security
than for the purpose of looking for food. On low pebbly,
muddy, or sandy shores, they always prefer the edge of the
water, in which they Avade, although they also search the
exposed parts. They run with great celerity on hard sand.

1J6 ILEMATOPUS OSTRALEGUS.

and walk with ease in soft muddy places, their short, ilat-
soled toes being -well adapted for both purposes. Limpets
and halaui form their chief food ; but, although they have
been said l)y many to eat oysters and other large bivalve
mollusc;!, I have not found such animals in their stomach.
The bivalve shells found in their gizzard or a>sophagus are
generally, when of small size, either entire or merely crushed,
but when large are deprived, in a gi^eater or less degTce, of
their testaceous envelopes. Along with their food they
swallow particles of gravel, frequently of considerable size :
I have found some a quarter of an inch in diameter. In
searching for food they usually keep by themselves, although
they sometimes allow the Curlew, Turnstone, and Redshanks
to mingle with them ; and in their flights they are very
seldom accompanied by other species. When it is high
water, they betake themselves in flocks to the rocky head-
lands, or to islands, sometimes also to an unfrequented part
of an extensive sandy beach, where they rest until the re-
tiring tide has left their feeding gTOunds exposed.

While reposing, the Sea Pie stands with its legs quite
straight, or uses one leg only, the other being drawn up, the
body horizontal, the neck retracted, the head either directed
forward, or with the bill buried among the feathers of the
back. In this position they present a curious appearance
w^hen there is a high wind, as in that case each individual
directs his breast toward it, and on a sandy beach or level
shore they often stretch out in long lines. When going to
sleep, however, it rests on one leg only. In open sandy
places, I have seen the flocks crouch. Its flight is strong
and steady, pcrfonned by regular beats of the extended
wings, the neck drawn in and the feet directed backwards,
as in the other Grall». At all seasons it is very shy and
vigilant, seldom permitting one to approach within shooting
distance, and with its shrill cries alarming less wary birds.
Its alarm note is a single shrill scream, but on some occasions
it emits a modulated softened cry of several notes. When
Avounded so as to be unal)le to fly, it readily ])etakes itself to
the water, and swims oft', sitting light, and moving with
considerable speed.

PIED OYSTER-CATCHER. 157

The Oystcr-catchor is a ])crmanent n'sidcut, and docs not
seem to extend its fii^lil to a i^icat distance, altliou<^li altcx'
the lirecdinf"- stasou is over it collects into flocks, and in
Avinter betakes itself to the estuaries and extended open
coasts. In April the flocks break up, and the individuals
disperse in pairs. Along" the eastern coast of Scotland, i'ew
breed on the rocky headlands, the j^reater number betaking;
themselves to the rivers, on the stony or sandy beaches of
which they form their nests. On the Tay and its tributaries,
the Tumel, and the Garry, as far up as Blair Atholl ; on the
South and North Esks ; the Dee, the Don, the Spey, and the
Findhorn, as well as many smaller streams, they are seen
dispersed from March through the summer and part of
autumn. They ascend the Dee as far as Mar Lodge, and
the Spey as far as Granton. Once, on a botanical exciirsion
with my class, I found a nest with eggs by the Dee, in the
parish of Petercultir. It was merely a slight hollow among
the pebbles of the beach.

The eggs, like those of the smaller gulls, are good ; but
the flesh, which is very dark, and abounds in fat of a
yellowish colour, has a disagreeable smell, and rather un-
pleasant taste. In winter these birds become extremely
plump, the skin, the interstices of the muscles, and the in-
ternal organs being then often loaded with fat. They arc
frequently seen in the markets, and are generally sold at two
shillings the pair in Edinburgh ; but they arc gTcatly inferior
to the Curlew and Golden Plover as an article of food.

On the shores of the Hebrides, where I have often found
it, the nest is generally a slight hollow among the gravel or
pebbles above high-Avater mark; but Avhen a rocky place
has been chosen, a fcAv straws and fra^i^ients of plants,
sometimes small stones and bits of shells, are brought
together. The favourite breeding places are headlands and
rocky islands, but the nests are sometimes found on sandy
beaches. The eggs are generally three, sometimes four,
placed with the smaller ends together. They are of a regular
oval forni, somcAvhat narrowed towards the smaller extre-
mity, tAvo inches long, an inch and seven-tAvelfths broad, of
a pale greyish-yelloAv colour, marked all over Avith dots.

158 H^MATOPUS OSTRALEGUS.

spots, and blotches of blackish-biowu and umber, Avith some
irregular linear markings of the same. The eggs are usually
deposited from the tenth of April to the tAventieth of ]May,and
only one brood is reared in the season. Although the parent
birds evince gi-eat anxiety about their eggs or young, they
seldom come very near an intruder, but generally keep flying
about at a safe distance, uttering their loud shrill cry.

Mr. 8t. John states that, in the neighbourhood of Forres,
they " sit quietly in pairs the chief part of the day on the
banks or islands of shingle about the river or on the shore,
but resort in the evenings to the sands in large flocks," and
that " during the whole of the breeding season they remain
in large flocks along the coast, notwithstanding their duties
of hatching and raising their young. When all other birds
are paired off, they still every now and then collect in the
same numbers as they do in winter." This, however, is not
a practice Avith them in other parts of Scotland, and, pro-
bably on account of local peculiarities, a great number of
sterile individuals, or such as are not breeding, may contihue
or collect there in summer. Some are, in like manner, to be
seen about Ytlian Mouth in summer ; but generally all along
our eastern coast the sea-shore is deserted during the breeding
season.

Should one consider the Sea-Pie tlic most beautiful of
our native birds, I could not much censure his taste. When
by the silver Dee, gliding rapidly along, amidst corn-fields,
pastures, and fragrant birch-Avoods, you hear a loud and
shrill cry, and turning about, see a pair AAninging their flight
up the country, tlu'ir glossy black and pure Avliite ])lumage
contrasting strongly Avith everything around, and their long
vermilion beaks giving them a strange and foreign aspect,
they never fail to rivet your gaze. Equally attractive are
they Avhen running about on some grassy meadow, picking
up an insect or a slug, then standing, and again advancing
with quick short steps, prettily tripping it among the
goAvans ; then emitting their loud alarm-cries, and flying off
to a more distant place, or alighting on the pebbly beach.
No creature but man seems to molest them ; but of his
advances they are ahvays suspicious, as good need they
have to be.

PIED OYSTER-CATCHER. 159

Young . — The yoiini^ leave the iiost soon after emei<rino;
fVoiu tlie eg"^", aiul conceal themselves amon}^ the stones or
hcrba^t;, in the manner of those of the Laj)\vin<i^. At first
the head, neek, hack, winj^s, and tail are covered with a
mottled down of a dnll brown colonr, -with ^reyish-wliite
tips. Tlie i)arts that are to he white have the down
greyish-white, tipped with pale brown. The down on the
tail is very long, brown above, white beneath. The bill is
yellowish-brown to the middle, then <^'eyish-white, the end
dnsky. The iris blaekisli-brown. The feet arc of a livid
grey, the toes darker, the claws gieyish-white at the base,
light brown at the end. The bill, althongh much shorter,
is of the same general form as in the adult, but it is much
less ccmipressed toward the end ; both mandibles are pointed,
and the upper, which extends a little beyond the other, has
the tip slightly declinate. The young do not for many days
l)etake themselves to the rocks or open sands, and therefore
must be fed by the old birds, and that plentifully, for
towards the period of their being fully fledged they are
usually excessively fat. When fledged, the general colour
of the dark parts is deep chocolate-brown, the feathers
slightly margined with yellowish-red ; the breast, belly,
greater part of the back, half of the tail, and its coverts, are
white. The bill is more tinged with orange, but the feet
are nearly as above described,

Progress toward Maturity. — After the first moult,
the black parts of the plumage are tinged with brown, more
especially the tpiills and tail. There is an obscure half-ring
of greyish-white across the fore part of the neck, the tips of
the white feathers being black. The legs are pale livid
grey, the claws brown, wliitish at the base; the iris crimson;
and the bill as in the adult, but a little more dusky towards
the end. It appears to me that the younger birds only have
the white marks on the neck, and that these gradually dis-
appear each successive moult, until in very old birds there
exist only faint indications of them, the feathers being merely
whitish at the base. The chin, which is sliglitly mottled
with white in young birds, becomes at length pure black.

160 H-EMATOPUS OSTRALEGUS.

Remarks. — My opportunities of stiidpng this species
have heen excellent, as I have very frequently watched
it in the Outer Hebrides, where it is plentiful, and
where I have often found its eggs and young. All that is
recorded above is, therefore, exclusively the result of my own
observation. On referring to various works, I tind nothing
additional of much interest. Montagu states that it " never
quits the sea-coast," and Mr. Jenyns that " it is never found
inland." This is not quite correct, for although it never
removes to a distance from water, it is, as I have shcAvn,
sometimes found far inland along pebbly rivers.

This species is common on the shores of most parts of
Europe, and is found in Asia and Africa ; but its occurrence
in America is doubtful, for although Wilson figures it, his
description refers to Hiematopus palliatus, which ^Ir. Audu-
bon has described as the only species met with by him in
that coimtry.

IGl

TllINGINiE.

SANDPIPERS AND ALLIED SPECIES.

Who that has ofton visited the sliorcs of the ocean,
wandered aU)ng- the extended sand-beaches on the margin of
which tlie waves terminate their career in foam and uproar,
or visited tlie muddy estuaries alternately filled and em})tied
by the i)eriodieal Hoods, has not stood to ga/e upon the tlocks
of tiny birds that were busily picking up their food from the
moist ground, or wheeling, as if in sport, their devious flight,
now skimming the surface of the water, now rising high
above the breakers, and then shooting far off to sea, to visit
a distant part of the coast. How often, in visiting a sedgy
pool surrounded with marshes, have we been saluted, but in
no friendly wise, by the shrill clamour of the long-billed and
sharp-winged birds which had placed their nests on tufts too
remote to be reached. Again, on the long range of heathery
hills that we had traversed for many a weary mile, we have
come, very unexpectedly to us, and with no welcome from
its occupant, upon the nest of the lonely Curlew, which
fluttered from among our feet in silence and terror, until
reaching a safe distance, she began to entice us away from
her treasure, by displaying a broken wing and shattered leg
— taught, in fact, by instinct, to act a palpable untruth.
Many pleasant sights have we seen on these solitary rambles —
here the four spotted eggs of the Dunlin, so like in colour to
the surrounding _gi"Ound, that you wonder how the eye has
distinguished them — here the timid young of the same bird
squatted among the short heath — there a flock of Godwits
thrusting their long bills into the mud ; and, again, the
gliding and low flight of the beautiful White-breasted Tatler,

162 TRIXGIN^.

as skiniiiiing hy (he margin of the quiet hike, it emits its
shrill and reiterated cries.

Of these hirds, and many others all nearly allied, those
Avhich constitute the natural family of the Tringinse agree in
presenting the following characters. The hody is ovate, and
compact ; the neck long or of moderate length ; the head
small, compressed, rounded in front. The bill long, straight,
blunt-tipped, sometimes arcuate, sometimes a little curved
upwards. The mouth is extremely narrow ; the tongue
slender, trigonal, grooved above, tapering, pointed. Oeso-
phagus narrow, with an oblong bulbiform proventriculus ;
stomach elliptical or roundish, with very large lateral muscles,
radiated tendons, and thin, dense, longitudinally rugous
epithelium ; intestine long, rather slender ; coeca moderate,
slender, cylindrical, or oblong.

Nostrils linear, small, pervious, basal. Eyes small.
Aperture of ear rather large, roundish. Legs of moderate
length or long, slender ; tibia bare below ; tarsus slender,
scutellate ; toes four, the hind toe very small and elevated ;
or three only, of moderate length, generally more or less
webbed at the base ; claws small, arched, compressed, obtuse.

Plumage moderately full, blended, on the upper parts
compact. Wings very long, pointed, Avith the first quill
longest ; inner secondaries elongated, one of them nearly as
long when the wing is closed. Tail short, of twelve feathers.

The Tringina?, though nearly allied to the Pluvialina?,
are easily distinguishable. They have the head smaller and
compressed ; the bill longer and more slender ; the eyes com-
paratively small, those of the family compared being re-
markably large and full. They are much more aquatic in
their habits, and a few of them swim habitually and with
ease. They are giTgarious in winter, often collecting into
vast flocks, and searching the shores of the sea fin- food.
They run with great speed, have a rapid flight, and emit loud
and rather shrill cries. It is chiefly by probing the sand and
the mud that they obtain their food ; but they also pick up
objects from the surface. Their food consists of mollusca,
insects, Crustacea, and other animals. Most of the species
that continue with us in winter, retire northward in summer.

SANDPIPERS AXD ALLIED SPECIES.

163

Their nest is a slight hollow, generally with some fragments
of vegetables, and they lay four large pyriform, spotted eggs.
Their flesh is savoury, and held in estimation, most of them
passing in the markets as snipes.

SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES.

GENUS I. MACHETES. RUFF.

13 ILL scarcely longer than the head, straight, slender,
somewhat flexible, with the ridge convex, flattened toward the
end, the nasal groove extending nearly to the end, the tip
slightly enlarged, obtuse. Nostrils small, linear, pervious,
basal, close to the margin. Legs rather long, very slender; toes
four, first very small and elevated, anterior rather long, third
and fourth connected by a basal web. Wings long, pointed ;
tail short, doubly emarginate. The male, in the breeding
season, assumes a great development of plumage on the
neck, and has the face tuberculated.

1. Machetes pugnax. Common Ruff. Male, in winter,
with the upper parts variegated with broAvnish-black and
light red, the tluoat and abdomen white, the fore-neck and
part of the breast pale reddish-brown, spotted with dark
brown. Female similar, but with the iipper parts lighter,
the lower more grey. Male, in summer, Avith numerous
fleshy tubercles on the face, two occipital tufts, and a very
large rufl* of elongated feathers on the neck ; the colours of

164 TRIXGIN.E.

the plumafi^e varying. Female without tubercles or orna-
mental feathers, the upper parts greyish-brown, glossed with
green, the fore-neck and breast paler.

GENUS II. TRINGA. SANDPIPER.

Bill not much longer than the head, nearly straight,
slender, soft, and somcAvhat flexible, Avith the ridge narrow,
but flattened toward the end, the narrow gTOove extending
nearly to the end, the tip slightly enlarged, and obtuse.
Nostrils small, linear, pervious, basal, sub-marginal. Legs
of moderate length, very slender ; toes four, small, the first
diminutive and very elevated, the outer two connected by a
very small basal Aveb. Wings very long, pointed ; tail short,
generally doubly emarginate.

1. Tringa Camdus. Ash-coloured Sandpiper . Bill a little
longer than the head, straight, its tip considerably dilated ;
tail even. In AAanter, ash-grey above, Avhite beneath, the
neck and sides streaked Avith dusky. In summer, the back
glossv black, variegated Avith broAvnish red ; the fore-neck
and breast yelloAvish-red.

2. Tringa pectoralis. Pectoral Sandpiper. Bill a sixth
longer than the head, scarcely d(>flexed at the end ; tail Avith
the mi(ldl(> feathers pointed and much longer than the
lateral, of Avhich three on each side arc equal. In Avinter,
the ujjper ])arts greyish-broAvn, streaked AAith dusky ; checks,
sides, and fore part of neck, Avith part of the breast and the
sides of the body, greyish-Avhite, streaked Avitli dusky, the
rest of the loAver parts Avhite. In summer, the feathers of
the upper parts broAvnish-black, broadly margined Avith
broAvnish-red ; the rump black ; the cheeks, neck, part of
the breast, and the sides broAvnish-grey, Avith larger streaks
of brownish-black.

3. Iringa rafescens. Buff-hroastcd Sa/n/j)ij)cr. liill not
longer than the head, straight ; tail Avith the middle feathers
considerably longer than the lateral, of Avhicli three on each
side are nearly equal. In summer, the upi)(>r parts blackish-
broAvn, each feather margined with greyish-yelloAV ; cheeks,
sides, and fore part of neck, Avith part of the breast and the

SANDPIPERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 10,3

sides of tlu' body, light reddish-yellow, streaked with brownish-
black ; the vest of the lower parts yellowisli-white, (juills
fi^reyish-browii, their inner webs whitish, with transverse
curved lines and dots of black ; outer tail-feathers edged
with white, within which is a black line.

4. Tringa maritima. Purple Sandpiper. 15111 a little
longer than the head, slightly decurved at the end; tail with
the middle feathers considerably longer, the three lateral on
each side nearly equal ; tarsus shorter than the middle toe ;
feet ochre-yellow. Upper parts glossy purplish-black ; in
winter, the feathers margined with light grey ; in summer,
margined with light red, and tipped with white.

5. Trinya Cinclifs. J)i(nUn Sd/idpiper. Bill a fourth
longer than the head, slightly decurved at the end ; tail
Avith the middle feathers considerably longer ; tarsus an
inch long ; bill black ; feet very dark olive ; tail-coverts
dusky. In winter, brownish-gi-ey above, streaked with
dusky ; fore part of neck paler, similarly streaked ; throat,
breast, and abdomen ^vhite. In summer, yellowish-red
above, spotted with brownish-black ; fore part of neck
greyish-white, tinged Avith red, and distinctly spotted with
dusky ; a large patch of black on the breast.

6. Tringa suharquata. Curlew-billed Sandpiper. Bill
half as long again as the head, considerably decurved toward
the end ; tail with the middle feathers slightly longer ; tarsus
an inch and a quarter long ; bill black ; feet very dark
olive ; tail-coverts white. In winter, brownish-grey above,
streaked Avith dusky ; fore part of the neck greyish-Avhite,
streaked Avith broAvnish-gi-ey. In summer, light red above,
spotted Avith black ; fore part of neck bright yelloAvish-red,
faintly streaked Avitli dusky ; tail-coverts spotted Avith brown
and red.

7. Tringa Schinzii. Schinz's Sandpiper. Bill about the
length of the head, straight ; tail Avith the middle feathers
considerably longer ; tarsus eleven-twelfths long ; bill and
feet dusky. In Avinter, yelloAvish-grey above, streaked Avith
broAvnish-black, scapulars edged Avith light red ; tail-coverts
AA'hitc ; fore-neck and breast gi-eyish-Avhite, A\-ith lanceolate
broAAniish-black streaks.

166 TRINGIN^.

8. Tringa platyrhyncha. Flat-billed Sandpiper. Bill half
as long' again as the head, depi-essed at the base, tapering ;
tail with the middle feathers considerably longer than the
lateral, which are nearly equal ; tarsus an inch long ; bill
reddish at the base, black toward the end ; feet greenish-
grey. In summer, the upper parts black, the feathers nar-
rowly edged with light red ; upper part of the head blackish-
brown, with two narrow light red bands ; fore part of neck
reddish-wliite, spotted with brown; tlic rest of the lower
parts white, lateral tail-coverts white, w4th a dusky spot.

9. Tringa minuta. Little Sandpiper. Bill about tlie
length of the head, straight, slender, scarcely enlarged at the
end ; tail doubly emarginate ; tarsus ten-twelfths long ; bill
and feet black. In winter, brownish-gTey above, streaked
with dusky, the sides of the neck paler, of its lower part
tinged Avith brown ; lower parts white ; as are the lateral
tail-coverts. In summer, yelloAvish-red above, spotted with
brownish-black ; lower parts white ; lower anterior and lateral
parts of the neck reddish-grey, streaked with brown ; a diisky
loral band, and a whitish streak over the eye.

10. Tringa Temminckii. Temminek^s Sa7idpiper. Bill
shorter than the head, straight, slender, scarcely enlarged at
the end ; tail somewhat cuneate, the outer feathers being
shorter than the rest ; tarsus eight-twelfths long ; bill dusky ;
feet greenish-brown. In winter, deep brown above, streaked
with blackish-brown ; fore part of the neck and a portion of
the breast reddish-grey; throat and lower parts white; lateral
tail-feathers nearly white. In summer, the feathers of the
u])])er parts deep black, margined Avith red ; fore part of the
neck reddish-grey, finely streaked with black ; throat and
lower parts white, as are the lateral tail-feathers.

GENUS III. CALIDRIS. SAXDERLING.

Bill of the length of the head, straight, !>lendcr, soft, and
somewhat flexible, with the ridge narrow, but flattened
toward the end, the nasal groove extending nearly to the
end, the tip a little enlarged, and obtuse. Nostrils small,
linear, pervious, basal, sub-marginal. Legs rather short.

SANDPIPERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 167

very slender ; toes three, smull, laterally iiiarj^iuute. Wiiij^s
very long, pointed ; tail short, somewhat doubly emarginate.
1. Calidris arcnaria. Common Sdndrrhiuj. \n winter,
pale gi"ey above, with dusky lines, white beu(>ath. In summer,
variegated above with black and red, beneath red anteriorly,
white beliind.

GENUS IV. NUMENIUS. CURLEW.

Bill at least twice tlu' lengtli of th(> head, arcuate, slender,
somewhat flexible, with tlu' ridge broadly convex, the nasal
groove very long, the tip enlarged, sub-(>lliptical. Nostrils
small, linear, pervious, basal. Legs long, slender ; tarsus
reticulated, but with a series of short scutella anteriorly for
two-thirds of its length ; toes rather short, broad and flat
beneatli. Wings very long, pointed ; tail rather short,
rounded.

1. Numcniits Arquata. Great Curlew. Length from
twenty-three to twenty-eight inches ; bill from five to seven
inches. Hind part of the back white, with narrow longi-
tudinal dark markings.

2. Xamcnhis P]ifeo2)us. Whimhrcl Curleiv. Length from
sixteen to nineteen inches ; bill little more than three inches.
Hind part of back Avliite.

GENUS V, LIMOSA. GODWIT.

Bill about twice the length of the head, straight or
slightly curved upwards, slender, considerably flexible, with
the ridge convex, flattened at the base and toward the end,
the nasal groove extending nearly to the end, the tip slightly
enlarged, obtuse. Nostrils small, linear, basal. Legs long-
er moderate, slender ; tarsus scutellate ; toes rather short,
broad and flat beneath, the outer two connected by a rather
large basal web, running out narrow to the end of each.
Wings long, pointed , tail short, the four middle feathers a
little longer.

L Limosa rufa. Bar-tailed Godicit. Bill about four
inches long, recurvate, flesh-coloured, duskv toward the

168 TRINGIXiE.

end ; tarsus about two inches and two-tAvclfths ; feet grepsli
blue ; tail white, with eight dusky bars.

2. Limosa ^gorcjjJiahi. Black-failed Godwit. Bill about
three and a half inches long, straight, orange, dusky at the
end ; tarsxis about two inches and three quarters long ; feet
brownish-black ; middle claw serrated ; tail black, wliite at
the base.

GENUS VI. MACRORHAMPHrS. LONG BEAK.

Bill twice the length of the head, straight, slender, sub-
ulate, compressed for more than half its length, depressed
and scrobiculate toward the end, and a little enlarged there,
the tips narrowed but blunt. Nostrils sub-basal, linear, per-
vious. Legs of moderate length, slender ; toes four, rather
small, the first diminutive and elevated, the outer two con-
nected as far as the second joint by a membrane. Wings
very long, pointed ; tail short, nearly even.

1. 3Iacrorhamphns griseus. Grey Longheak. In Avinter,
the u])per parts broAvnish-grey, spotted Avith dusky ; the
rump and tail Avhite, transversely barred Avith blackish-
broAA'n. In summer, the upper parts variegated Avith
broAvnish-black and light reddish-yelloAv ; the loAVcr light
yellowish-redj spotted and barred Avith dusky.

:g9

MACHETES. RUFF.

The bird known in Britain by the name of Kuft', Trinj^a
piignax of various aiithors, lias been separated from the
Trini;ic by Cuvii'r, to form a genus by itself, bearing the
designation of Machetes or Fighter, in allusion to the com-
bative ])ropensity of the males during the breeding season.
The bill in this genus differs in no appreciable degree from
that of Tringa C-anutus ; the general form approaches to that
of Limosa ; the legs, and especially the toes, are longer than
in Tringa, and the latter indicate some approach to the
Snipes. Not being acquainted Avith any other species than
Machetes pugnax, I must take the generic character from it
alone.

Bill scarcely longer than the head, straight, slender, soft
and somewhat flexible : upper mandible with the dorsal line
straight, slightly declinate for tAvo-thirds, the ridge convex,
flattened toward the end, the tip slightly enlarged, obtuse,
and a little exceeding that of the lower, the nasal groove
extending nearly to the end, and filled by a concave bare
membrane ; lower mandible with the angle very long and
narrow ; the sides grooved, the tip a little enlarged and
obtuse. Tongue very long, slender, trigonal, channelled
above, pointed.

Nostrils small, linear, pervious, basal, close to the mar-
gin. Eyes rather small ; both eyelids densely feathered.
Aperture of ear rather large, roundish. Legs rather long;
tibia bare about a third of its length; tarsus rather long,
slender, compressed, anteriorly covered with numerous nar-
row scutella ; toes slender, first very small and elevated ;
anterior toes rather long, inner a little shorter than outer,
third not much longer, all with numerous scutella above,
laterally marginate ; third and fom'th connected by a basal

170 MACHETES. RUFF.

■vveb. Claws small, arcliod, nmch compressed, tapering,
acute.

Plumage moderately full, soft, and rather blended, on the
back and wings distinct. Wings long, pointed ; quills
twenty-five ; primaries tapering, the first longest ; seconda-
ries short, incurved, but the inner elongated, one of them
nearly as long as the first primary when the wing is closed.
Tail short, doubly emarginate, of twelve feathers.

The males, which are polygamous, have the face covered
Avitli tubercles, and the neck furnished with a large ruff,
during the breeding? season.

171

MACHETES PUGNAX. THE COMMON RUFF.

rio. 16.

Tringa pugnax. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 247. Summer.

Tringa littorca. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 251. Young. — Lath. Ind. Orn. IL 731.

Tringa pugnax. Lath. Ind. Omith. IL 725. Summer.

Euff. Mont. Omith. Diet, and Supplt.

Becasseau combattant. Tringa pugnax. Temm. Man. d'Om. II. 731.

Tringa pugnax. Iluft". Flem. Brit. Aniin. 110.

Machetes pugnax. Rulf. Selb. Illustr. Brit. Ornith. II. 130.

Tringa pugnax. RuiF. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 207.

Machetes pugnax. Bonap. Comp. List. 50.

Male in tc inter with the hill brown, the feet greenish-
yellow, the throat and abdomen white, the fore neck and jyart
of the breast pale reddish-brown, spotted icith dark broicn ;
the upper parts variegated with brownish-black and light-red.
Female similar, hut with the upper parts lighter, the lower
more grey, tJte bill and feet dusky. Male in shimmer, icith
numerous fleshy tubercles on the face, two occipital tufts and
a very large ruff of elongated feathers on the neck ; the colour
of the plumage varying in different individuals, and even in
the same at different periods of the sajne season; the bill and

172 MACHETES PUGNAX.

feet orange or yelloic. Female without tuhereles or ornamen-
tal feathers ; the i(j)per parts (jreijisJi-hrou-n, t/lossed with
green, the fore neek and breast paler ; the bill and feet dusky.
Young with the lotcer parts pale reddish anteriorly, white
behind; the feathers of the uj>per parts blaek, jyiargined with
light red.

This bird is reinavkal)le for two circumstances connected
Avitli its habits, it beint;- })olyganio\is, and during the breeding
season extremely pugnacious. Two circumstances relative
to its plumage are also peculiar ; in sjiring it acquires an
enormous ruff of feathers on the neck and a nudtitude of
fleshy tubercles on the face, which disappear in Jidy ; and
the colours of the ruff especially, as well as of the body, are
so diversified that hardly two individuals can be found pre-
cisely alike. As in every other instance, I shall first describe
the bird in its winter plumage.

Male IX Winter. — The general fonn of the Ruff is
rather slender ; the body being moderate, the neck rather
long, the head rather small, ovate, somewhat compressed.
The bill is of the same length as the head, straight, slender,
higher than broad, toward the end depressed ; both man-
dibles laterally grooved nearly to the end, with the edges
soft and blunt, the tips a little enlarged and obtuse. The
nostrils are linear, small, three-twelfths long, sub-basal, sub-
marginal, direct. The eyes are of moderate size; the aper-
ture of the ear roundish and rather large. The legs are
rather long and slender ; the tibia is bare for an inch, or one
third of its length ; the tarsus has twenty-eight anterior
scutella, and a greater number behind ; the hind toe, Avhich
is very small, has four, the second toe twenty, the third
tAventy-eight, the fourth twenty-six scutella ; the anterior
toes are long, slender, compressed, margiuate, the third and
fourth connected by a basal web, the second a little shorter
than the fourth. The claws are of moderate length, very
.slender, much com])ressed, ta])('ring, ])ointed, arched.

The plumage is soft and rather blended, unless on the
back and wings ; the feathers generally ovate. The wings

COMMON RUFF. 173

are lon*^, of moderate ])rea(lth, pointed ; tlic ])iiiiianes stiff,
tapcrin;;-, tlie first loiii^cst, tlic rest rapidl\ i^raduated ; tlie
inner secondaries tapering and (dongated. The tail is rather
short, of twidve feathers, of which the four middle are eon-
siderahly longer.

The hill is brown ; the iris hazel ; the feet greenish-
yellow ; the claws black. The throat and fore-neck are
white, its lower part and a ])ortion of the breast pale reddish-
brown, spotted with dark brown; the rest of the lower parts
white. The upper parts are variegated with brownish-black
and light red ; the feathers having a large patch of the
former colour, with a margin of the latter ; on the hind part
of the back they are greyish-brown, with reddish margins.
The smaller wing-coverts are brownish-grey, with their
central part dusky; the primary quills and their coverts
dark brown, with the shafts whitish ; the secondary quills
and coverts greyish-brown, witli a greenish gloss, and nar-
rowly margined with whitish. The upper tail-coverts are
brownish-grey, margined with paler, and having a dusky
mark near the end ; the tail-feathers brownish-grey, with
the shafts whitish ; the four middle feathers with dusky
markings toward the end.

Length to end of tail 12 inches ; extent of wings 25;
wing from flexure 7|- ; tail 3 ; bill along the ridge Ifj, along
the edge of loAver mandible l-^; bare part of tibia 1^;
tarsus 2 ; first toe ^, its claw -fj ; second toe \4r, its claw -^ ;
third toe 1^, its claw -pV; fourth toe ^V, its claw ,\.

Female in Winter. — The female resembles the male,
but has the dark tints paler, and the low^er parts tinged with
grey. The bill is black ; the feet dusky grey.

Variations. — The males vary considerably in colour
even in winter ; but this is chiefly owing to the intermixture
of feathers belonging to the summer plumage. After the
month of April, the greatest diversity prevails.

Change of Plumage. — The quills, larger coverts, and
tail-feathers are changed in autumn ; but the other feathers

174 MACHETES PUGNAX.

are renewed tM ice in tlie year. In springs, moreover, a tuft
of oblong curved feathers projects from each side of the
occiput ; and alonj^ the sides of the neck anteriorly arise
series of elongated, oblong, incurved feathers, capable of
beiner raised so as to form a larq;e ruff. The cheeks, fore-
head, and space around the eyes become at the same time
covered with obovate or oblong papilla? of a yellow colour
and flesliv consistence. In June these papilla? disappear, the
summer plumage begins to be shed, and by the end of
October the winter dress is completed.

Male ix Simmer. — Bill yellowisli-orange, toward the
end brown ; papillae on the head reddish ; feet yellow ; claws
black. The wings, tail, and abdomen, as in Avinter ; but all
the other parts varying so as to render a general description
impracticable. Thus in an individual before me the occi-
pital tufts are purplish-black ; the ruff pah^ yellow, streaked
and variegated Avith black ; in another, the tufts are minutely
variegated with light red and black, while the ruff is glossy
purplish-black ; in another, the tufts and ruff are variegated
with reddisli-yellow and black ; in another they are purplish-
black, barred witli Avliite ; in another almost entirely yellow ;
in anothtn- nearly Avliite. In short, there is no end to tlie
variations of these parts. The neck, breast, and sides are
frequently black, glossed Avith blue and ])urple ; but often
also variegated Avith AAhite and black, or yelloAv, grey, and
other tints. For the most part the hind-n(>ck and back are
barred and mottled AAith broAvnish-black and light reddish-
yelloAv ; the middle tail-feathers usually barred.

Female in Summer. — The female does not acquire any
tubercles or ornamental feathers on tlie head or neck. The
bill is black ; tlic feet greenish-grey. The up])er parts
greyish-broAvn, glossed Avith green ; the fore part of the
neck and breast ])aler ; the rest of the loAvcr parts Avhite.

Ha nil s. — This species formerly bred in great numbers in
the fenny districts along the eastern coast of Englaiul ; but,
OAving to the draining of the marshes, and the increase of

COMMON KUFf\ 175

population, is now of" rare occurrence in those parts. It
appears that many of the Huffs now merely sojourn with us
for a short time duriufr their vernal aiul autumnal migra-
tions. On the east coast of Scotland they usually appear
about the middle of September, and depart in about a fort-
ni<;ht ; but I have never seen an adult male killed there ; the
little flocks that occur bein^' young birds and females.

In the end of August, and in September and October,
small flocks are sometimes met Avith along the east coast of
Aberdeenshire, especially about Ythau Mouth, and thence
to Aberdeen, and in the estuaries of the South Esk and
Tay. They seem to pass southward after a very short
sojourn. They are also not very unfrequently met with on
the shores of the Frith of Forth. From thence, all along
the eastern and part of the southern shores of England, they
have been met with here and there. The bird is not known
to breed any where in Scotland or its islands, and therefore
it is more than probable that these flocks have winged their
way from Scandinavia, in some parts of which no bird is
more common during the summer. We have no facts as to
their passage along the western coasts of Scotland and
England ; but Mr. Thompson states that they occur not un-
frequently in Belfast Bay, and sometimes in other parts of
Ireland, though not hitherto observed on the western or
southern coasts.

Very few now breed in England, and none, in so far as is
known, in Scotland or Ireland. They reappear, on their
return to the north, in spring, from March to the middle of
!May ; but in smaller numbers. Montagu states in the Sup-
plement of his Ornithological Dictionary, published in 1813,
that he made a tour through Lincolnshire to make himself
acquainted with the history of this singular bird. He found
that, owing to the draining of a large tract of fen, they had
become scarcer than they used to be.

" The trade of catching Ruffs," he says, " is confined to
a verj' few persons, which at present scarcely repays their
trouble and expense of nets. These people live in obscure
places on the verge of the fens, and are found out Avith diffi-
culty, for foAV, if any, birds are ever bought but by those

ITG MACHETES PUGNAX.

Avho make a trade of lUttiu<;- them t'ur the table ; and they
sedulously conceal the abode of the fowlers, so mueli tluit
by no art could we obtain from any of them where they
resided; and in order to deceive us, after evading our en-
treaties, gave us instructions that led us quite a contrary
direction. The reason of all this was obvious, for after much
labour and search, in tlie most obscure places, (fur neither
the innkeepers, nor other inhabitants of the towns, could
give anv infonuation, and many did not know such a bird
was peculiar to their fens,) we found out a very ci\-il and
intelligent fowler, who resided close to Spalding, at Fen-
gate, by name William Burton, (we feel a pleasure in
recording his name, not only from his obliging nature, but
for the use of others in similar pursuits,) and strange to say,
that, although the man had constantly sold Huffs to Mr.
Towns, a noted feeder, hereafter more particularly noticed,
as also to another feeder, at Cowbit, by the name of Weeks,
neither of these persons could be induced to inform us even
of the name of this fowler. The reason, however, was
evident, and justly remarked by Burton, for he obtained no
more than ten shillings per dozen, whereas AVeeks demanded
thirty shillings for the like number he had the same day
bought of Burton. The season was far advanced, and we
were obliged to buy some at that price of Weeks, for Burton
could not then catch us as many as we requii-ed.

"At this time we were shown into a room, where there
were about seven dozen males, and a dozen females, and of the
former there were not two alike. This intrusion to choose
our birds, drove them from their stands, and compelling
some to tresspass upon the premises of others, produced many
battles. By this feeder Ave learned, that two guineas a
do/en Avas now tlie price of fattened Huffs ; and he never re-
membered tlie price under thirty shilling, Avlien fit for table.

" Mr. Towns, the noted feeder at Spalding, assured us his
family had been a hundred years in the trade ; boasted tliat
they liad served George the Second and many nobU' families
in the kingdom. He undertook, at tlie desire of tlie late
Manjuis of Townsend (when that nobleman was Lord Lieu-
tenant of Irelandj, to take some Huffs to that country, and

COMMON HUFF. 177

actually set off with twenty-seven dozen from Liiicohisliirc,
left seven dozen at the Duke of Devonshire's, at Chatsworth,
continued his route across the kingdom, to Holyhead, and
delivered seventeen do/cn alive in J)ul>liii, haviiij^- lost only
three dozen in so lon<»; a journey, confined and oi-eatly
crowded as they were in haskets, whicli were carried upon
tAvo horses.

" Nothin*^ can more stronj^ly evince the hardy constitution
of these birds, than the performance of such a journev, so
soon after capture, and necessarily fed with a food wholly
new to them : and yet a certain degree of care and attention
is requisite to preserve, and more especially to fatten them ;
for out of the seventeen dozen delivered at the castle of
Dublin, not uune than two dozen were served up to table,
doubtless entirely owing to a want of knowledge or attention
of the feeder under whose care they had been placed.

" Few llufFs, com])aratively speaking, are now taken in the
spring, as the old birds frequently pine, and will not readily
fatten. The principal time is in September, when the young
birds are fled ; these are infinitely more delicate for the
table, more readily submit to confinement, and are less in-
clined to fight. If this plan were generally enforced by the
proprietors of fen land, or made a bye-law amongst them-
selves, the breed Avould not be so reduced ; but there are
still some fowlers Avho make two seasons, and thus by
catching the old birds in the spring, especially the females,
verify the fable of the Goose and the golden eggs ; the
destruction of every female in the breeding season is the
probable lo>s of fonr young.

'' The manner of taking these birds is somcAvhat different
in tlic two seasons : in the spring the liufFs hill, as it is
termed, that is, they assemble upon a rising spot of ground
contiguous to where the Reeves propose to deposit their
eggs ; there they take their stand, at a small distance fi-om
each other, and contend for the females — the nature of poly-
gamous birds. This hill, or place of resort for love and
battle, is sought for by the fowler, who, from liabit, dis-
covers it by the birds having trodden the turf somewliat
bare, though not in a circle as usually described.

178 MACHETES PUGXAX.

" Wlien a liill has been discovered, the fowler repairs to
the spot before the break of day, spreads his net, phices
his decoy birds, and takes his stand at the distance of
about 140 yards or more, according to the shyness of the
birds.

" The net is what is termed a singk^ ckip-net, about 17 feet
in k^igtli and (> wide, witli a pole at each end. This, by
means of upriglits tix(Ml in the ground, and each fvunished
with a pulley, is easily pulled over the birds within reach,
and rarely fails taking all witliin its giasp ; but in order to
give the pull the greatest velocity, the net is (if circum-
stances will permit) placed so as to fold over with the wind.
However, there are some fowlers who prefer pulling it against
the wind for Plovers. As the Ruffs feed chiefly by night,
they repair to their frequented hill at the dawn of day,
nearly all at the same time ; and the fowler makes his first
pull according to circumstances, takes out his birds, and
prepares for the stragglers who traverse the fens, and who
have no adopted hill. These ai'c caught singly, being enticed
by the stuflfed birds.

" Burton, who was before mentioned, never used anything
but stuffed skins, executed in a very rude manner ; but some
fowlers keep the first Ruffs they catch for decoy birds. These
have a string of about two feet long tied above the knee, and
fastened down to the giound.

" The stuffed skins are sometimes so managed as to be
moveable by means of a long string, so that a jerk represents
a jump, fa motion very common amongst Ruffs, who at the
sight of a wanderer flying by will leap or flirt a yard ott' the
ground,) by that means inducing those on Aving to come and
alight by him.

" The stuffed birds are prepared by filling the skin a\ ith a
whisp of straw tied together, the legs hav-ing been first cut
off, and th(^ skin afterwards sewed along the breast and
belly, but with no great attention to cover the straw beneath.
Into this straw a stick is thrust to fix it into the gi'ound, and
a peg is also thrust through the top of the head, and down
the neck into the stuffing or straw body, and the wings are
closed by the same process. Rough as this preparation is,

COMMON RUFF. 179

and as unlike a living bird as skin and feathers can be made,
it answers all the purpose.

" When the Reeves begin to lay, l)oth those and the Ruffs
are least shy, and so easily caught, that a fowler assured us
he could with certainty take every bird on the fen in the
season. The females continue this boldness, and their teme-
rity increases as they become broody ; on the contrary, we
found the males at that time could not be approached within
the distance of musket-shot, and conse(|uently far beyond
the reach of small shot.

" We were astonished to observe the property that these
fowlers have acquired, of distinguishing so small an object as
a Ruff at such an immense distance, which, amongst a
number of tufts or stumps, could not by us be distinguished
from one of those inequalities ; but their eyes had been in
long practice of looking for the one object.

" The autumnal catching is usually about Michaelmas, at
which time few old males are taken ; from which an opinion
has been formed that they migrate before the females and
young. It is, however, more probable that tlu^ few which
are left after the spring fowling, like other polygamous birds,
keep in parties separate from the female and her brood till
the return of spring. That some old Ruffs are occasionally
taken in the autumnal fowling, we have the assertion of ex-
perienced fowlers ; but we must admit that others declare
none are taken at this season. It must, however, be recol-
lected, that in the autumn the characteristic long feathers
have been discharged, and consequently young and old
males have equally tlieir plain dress ; but the person who
assured us that old male birds Avcre sometimes taken at that
season, declared it Avas easy to distinguish them from the
young of tliat .summer.

" It does not appear to be the opinion of fowlers, that the
males are more than one season arriving at maturity, because
the Ruffs taken in the spring, destitute of the characteristic
long feathers, which constitutes their principal distinction, are
comparatively few to those possessing the ruff. The opinion,
therefore, that those ruffless males are birds of a very late
brood of the preceding season, is a reasonable conjecture.

180 >L\CHETES Pl'GXAX.

" Tlic lonf^ feathers on the nock and sides of the head, in
the niaU'. that constitute the vuff and auricles, are of short
duration; for they are scarcely completed in the month of
May, and hegin to fall the latter end of June. The change
of these singular parts is accompanied hy a complete change
of plumage; the stronger colours, such as purple, chesnnt,
and some others, vanish at the same time, so that in their
winter dress they become more generally alike from being
less varied in plumage ; but we observed that those who had
the ruff more or less white, retained that colour about the
neck after the summer or autumnal moulting Avas effected.

*' The females, or Reeves, begin laying their eggs the first
or second Aveek in ]May ; and we have found their nest with
young as early as the third of June. By this time the males
cease to hill. The nest is usually formed upon a stump in
the most swampy places, surrounded by coarse grass, of
which it is also formed. The eggs are (as visual Avith its
congeners) four in number ; these are so nearly similar in
colour to those of the Snipe and Redshank, both of which
breed in the same Avet places, and make similar nests, that
some experience is required to discriminate them. They
are, hoAvever, superior in size to the former, and are knf)wn
from the latter by the gi'ound being of a greenish hue
instead of a rufous Avhite ; but individuals assimilate so
nearly to each other as not to be distinguished, especially as
the duskv and broAvn spots and blotches are similar. The
Aveight of the eggs is from five drams tAventy grains to five
drams fifty grains.

"The AA'eight of the Ruff in the spring, Avhen first taken,
is from five ounces and three quarters to six ounces and a
quarter ; the Aveight of the Reeves about four ounces. The
lengtli of an old Ruff is sometinu^s as much as thirteen
inches and a half; young males about twelve inches. The
female measures about ten inches.

" It is a remarkable character of these birds, that they
feed most greedily the moment they are taken ; a basin of
bread and milk, or boiled A\lieat, placed before them, is
instantly contended for ; and so ])ugnacious is their dis-
position, that they Avould starve in the midst of plenty, if

COMMON RUFF. 181

several tlislies of food were not placed amongst them, at a
distance from each otlier."

Montaj^u carried some of these birds with him to
Devonsliire. .Several of them hved in confinement for two
and three years, and one for four years, lie noticed that
their annual changes never varied ; every spring produced
the same coloured rutf and other feathers ; but the tubercles
on the face never appeared in confinement.

" We had occasion to remark," he continues, " that
although the pugnacious disposition of the Ruff never en-
tirely ceased in confinement, yet it increased with the
gi-owth of the long neck feathers in the spring, when the
least movement of either from their stand provoked a battle.
At otlier times they would occasionally sleep close to each
other, with tlieir heads turned over the winy-, and one les:
tucked up ; «ut a mess of bread and milk instantly roused
the latent spirit for battle, and one bird was so much
wounded in the throat in one of these feuds that he died.
Their actions in lighting are very similar to those of the
Game Cock ; the head is lowered, and the bill held in a
horizontal direction ; the ruff, and indeed every feather,
more or less distended, the former sweeping the ground as a
shield to defend the more tender parts ; the auricles erected,
and the tail partly spread ; upon the whole assuming a most
ferocious aspect. AVhen either could obtain a firm hold Avith
the bill, a leap succeeded, accompanied with a stroke of the
wing ; but they rarely injured each other."

Mr. Thompson, of Belfast, in his Natural History of
Ireland, presents a not pleasing battle-scene : — " A relative
has mentioned to me, that when he Avas leaving Rotterdam
for London, a few years ago, in spring, a huge basket con-
taining from two to three hundred Ruffs was put on board
the steamer. The incessant fighting of these birds proved
the gi*and source of attraction to the passengers during the
voyage. Their crib was one great battle-field, in which
everv indiA^idual seemed to be at the same moment ensased,
and determined to keep up the warfare as long as life itself
lasted. It Avas a continual battle, and treading doAvn of the
wounded and dying. About one half of them Avere slain

182 MACHETES PUGNAX.

before the vessel reached London. On inquiry of the person
who had charge of them, ' Would it not have been better to
place them in smaller baskets V the rc])ly was, that it would
have boon quite the same as to the lighting and deaths
produced."

Yoi'NG. — The following description of the young in full
plumage is taken from two individuals shot on the shores of
the Firth of Forth in autumn, and a specimen from Noi-way.
The bill is black ; the feet greenish-black. The upper part
of the head light red streaked with black ; the upper hind-
nock duller, witli larger and fainter spots ; the rest of the
hind-neck, the fore part of the back, and the scapulars
brownish-black, with light rod margins ; the feathers of the
hind part of the back dusky grey, with dull light red edges.
Wing-coverts glossy greenish-grey, black toward the end,
and edged with pale rcddisli-gi-ey ; qxiills dusky, glossed Avith
green, margined with Avhitish ; the inner secondaries edged
Avith light red. Tail-feathers grey, glossed with green, edged
with rod, the four middle darker, all Avitli dusky markings
toward the end. The fore-nock and part of the breast and
sides are pale greyish-red, the other parts white.

In Soptombor, 1840, I procured two young individuals,
a male and a female, which had boon shot on the Forth near
Stirling.

In both, the tongue was one inch in length ; the esopha-
gus five, the stomach an inch and two-twelfths long, an inch
and one-twelftli in breadth ; the intestine in the male
measured sovontoon inches, in the female eighteen ; cceca in
the former an incli and ton-twelfths, in the latter two inches,
thoir greatest AvicUli two-twelftlis ; the rectum in both two
inches and a quarter. The stomach broadly elliptical, com-
pressed, with strong muscles and radiated tendons ; the
epitlielium very thin, dense, elastic, longitudinally rugous,
dull vollow. The contents of the stomach were small crus-
taceu, insects, and fresh-water univalve shells, with numerous
fragments of quartz, rounded and smoothed, the largest two-
twelfths in diameter.

183

TRINGA. SANDPIPER.

The Sandpipers arc birds of small size, the largest not
cxeeedin<^ tlic Golden Plover, and resemble in form the
Sanderlings, Phalaropes, Snipes, and other genera of the
same family, having the body rather fall and ovate, the neck
of moderate length, the head rather small, compressed, and
anteriorly convex.

Bill not much longer than the head, nearly straight,
slender, soft and somewhat flexil)le ; upper mandible Avith
the dorsal outline straight, the ridge narrow, but flattened
towards the end, the tip slightly enlarged, obtuse, and a little
exceeding that of the lower, the nasal gi-oove extending
nearly to the end and filled by a concave bare membrane ;
loAver mandible Avith the angle very long and narrow, the
sides grooved, the tip a little enlarged and obtuse. Tongue
soft at the base, very long, slender, trigonal, channelled above,
pointed. Upper mandible within concave, with a groove on
each side, and a central double row of reversed pointed
papilla? ; lower deeply concave. Fauces extremely small.
CEsophagus narrow, Avithout dilatation ; proventriculus small,
its glands oblong; gizzard very large and poAverful, its
muscles extremely firm ; its cuticular lining rugous ; intes-
tine long ; coeca moderate, cylindrical.

Nostrils small, linear, pervious, basal, close to the margin.
Eyes rather small ; both eyelids densely feathered. Aperture
of ear rather large, roundish. The feet are of moderate
length, and very slender ; the tibia long, and bare above the
joint ; tarsus of ordinary length, anteriorly covered Avith
numerous nanoAv scutella ; toes small ; first very small and
elevated ; second a little shorter than fourth, third not much
longer ; all Avith numerous scutella above, laterally margi-

184 TRINGA. SANDPIPER.

nat€ ; third and fourth connected by a basal web. Claws
small, curved, compressed, obtuse.

Plumage moderately full, soft, and rather blended, but on
the back and wings distinct. Wings very long, pointed ;
quills twenty-five ; primaries tapering, the first longest ;
secondaries short, incurved, but the inner elongated, one of
them nearly as long as the first primary when the wing is
closed. Tail short, of twelve narrowed feathers, generally
cmarginate.

The Sandpipers inhabit the sandy and muddy coasts of
the sea in autunni and winter, often collecting into large
flocks, and occasionally associating with Plovers, Sander-
lings, and other birds of a like nature. In summer they are
scattered over the moors and marshy districts of the northern
countries, where they breed, forming a shallow nest on the
gi'ound, and depositing four ])yriform, spotted eggs. The
young run about almost inmiediately after birth, and squat
when in danger. The food is obtained by probing the mud
or soft sand with their flexible bill, and consists of insects,
worms, and small testaceous mollusca.

The males are considerably smaller than the females, and
in some species are distinguished by a diff'erence of colour, or
by modification of the plumage. In the same species the
colours vary at different seasons, the winter plumage being
very different from that of summer, on whiih account gTeat
confusion prevailed in this genus until ]M. Temminck and
some other modern writers accurately defined the variations
observed.

The bird popularly known as Sandpiper, is of a different
genus, in which are species distinguished by different names.
But as every genus ought to have a generic name, vernacular
as well as scientific, if the term 8andpi})er is to be employed,
it must be given exclusively to the genus Tringa or the
genus Actitis. The Tringa? are usually called Sandpipers,
and many ornithologists give them that name ; but if it be
appropriated by them, it is evident tliat it cannot be shared
bv another genus.

18a

TRINGA CANUTUS. THE ASH-COLOURED SAND-
PIPER OR KNOT.

GREY SANDPU'EU. IIED-BREASTED SANDPIPER. RED SANDPIPER.

Fiu. 17.

Tringa Canutus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 2-51. Adult in Winter.

Tringa Canutus. Lath. Ind. Ornith. IL 738. Adult in Winter.

Tringa islandica. Linn. Syst. Nat. L Addenda. Adult in Suinnier.

Tringa islandica. Lath. Ind. Orn. IL 737. Adult in Summer.

Red Sandpiper. Mont. Orn. Diet. Summer.

Knot. Mont. Orn. Diet. Winter.

Sandpiper, Ash-coloxn-cd. Mont. Orn. Diet. Young.

Becasseau Canut ou Mauheehe. Tringa cinerea. Temm. Man. d'Om. II. 627.

Tringa Canutus. Knot. Flem. Brit. Anim. 109.

Tringa cinerea. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 733. Young.

Tringa grisea. Lath. Ind. Orn. IL 733. Adult in Winter.

Tringa noevia. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 732. In moult.

Knot. Tringa Canutus. Selby, Illustr. II. 138.

Tringa Canutus. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 213.

Tringa Canutus. Bonap. Comp. List. 49.

Bill straight, a little longer than the head, its tip con-
siderablij dilated ; tail even; tarsus an inch a?id two-twelfths
long. In winter the i^lumage ash-grey above, rchite beneath,
the neck and sides streaked with dusky. In summer the back
glossy black, variegated with yellowish-red ; the fore neck and
breast yelloicish-red. The young grey above, each feather on
the back with a double marginal band of black and white.

186 TRINGA CANUTUS.

^Iale. — Tlie Knot, wliic h is inucli larp:er than the Purple
Sandpiper and Dunlin, and inferior in size to the Ruff, pre-
sents nothint;- in its form and structure differinoj in a remark-
ahle degree from the other species of the genus. The bill is
verj' slightly longer than the head, straight, slender, some-
what compressed ; the upper mandible has its dorsal outline
straiglit, the ridge flattened towards the end, the lip con-
siderably enlarged, obtuse, a little exceeding that of the
lower, the sides deeply grooved to near the end ; the lower
mandible has the angle very long and narrow, the sides
grooved, the tip enlarged and obtuse. The oesophagus is
four and a half inches long, of uniform diameter and narrow ;
the proventriculus small, with very numerous glandules.
The gizzard is very large, its muscles extremely firm, its
cuticular lining longitudinally rugous ; its length an inch
and a lialf. The intestine twenty-nine inches long, of nearly
uniform diameter; the coeca three inches long, Avith a
diameter of two-twelfths; the rectum an inch and three-
quarters in length ; the general diameter of the intestine
four-twelfths.

The head is small, oblong, and compressed ; the eyes
rather small ; the aperture of the ears large, being four-
twelfths across. The feet arc very slender and of moderate
length ; the tibia bare for a short space ; tarsus anteriorly
covered with thirty-five broad scutella ; toes small ; the first
very small and elevated, with six scutella, the second with
eighteen, the third with thirty, the fourth with twenty scu-
tella; the anterior toes are very slightly webbed at the base,
and rather broadly margined. The claws are very small,
curved, compressed, and obtuse.

Tlie ])lumage is blended ; on the back and Avings tlie
featlicrs nro distinct and rounded. Tlie Avings are very long
and i)ointed ; the quills twenty-five; the primaries tapering,
the first longest, the rest rapidly graduated ; the inner
secondaries elongated and tajiering, the longest an inch
sliorter tlian the first primary. The tail is short, even, of
tAvelve tapering, rounded feathers, the tAvo middle and the
outer a little longer, so that the organ is in fiict doubly emar-
ginate in a slight degree ; the tail-coA'crts long and narroAv.

ASH-COLOUllED SANDPIPER. 187

Tlie bill is grfyish-ljlack, the iiiart;iiis at the base reddish.
The feet are greyish-blue, the tarsal-joiut and soles <^eeu ;
the claws black. The ii])])('r j)art of the head, a band from
the bill to the eye, the himl-ncck, the fore part of the hack,
the scapulars, and wing-coverts, ash-grey ; the central part
of each feather dark-grey, on the scapulars, back and neck
reduced to a mere line. The hind part of the back, and the
upper tail-coverts are white, with curved bands of black. The
primary coverts and quills are greyish-black ; the secondaries
gradually fading to grey ; the shafts of the quills and the tips
of the larger coverts white. The tail is light ash-grey. The
lower parts are white ; the cheeks and fore-neck gieyish, and
marked with small dark-grey lines ; the fore part of the
breast and the sides with umlulatcd bands.

Length to end of tail 10^ inches ; extent of wings ~0 ;
bill along the ridge 1-^^, along the edge of lower mandible
^TJ > "^^i"© from flexure 6-j^ ; tail 2-Lf ; tarsus 1-j^r ; first toe
-fV, its claw -Jj ; second toe -^, its claw -^ ; third toe \^, its
claw -j3j ; fourth toe -^, its claw -fj.

Female. — The female is similar, but much larger.

Length to end of tail 10} ^ inches; extent of wings 22;
bill along the ridge 1 ,^2 , along the edge of lower mandible
^Ti > "^'iug fi"om flexure 6f ; tail 2f ; bare part of tibia -^ ;
tarsus l^V ; first toe -^, its claw -^ ; second toe '^, its claw -^ ;
third toe -J-^, its claw -pj ; foxirth toe -^, its claw -j3^.

Variations. — I have not observed any remarkable varia-
tions in the winter plumage of adult indi^■iduals.

Changes of Plumage. — Excepting the quills and tail-
feathers, the whole plumage is renewed in spring, when the
colouring becomes entirely altered. The ordinary moult
commences in August, and is complete by the middle of
November.

Adtjlt in Summer. — Not having at hand a British speci-
men at this season, I take the following descrij)tion from one
obtained in the Arctic regions by the surgeon of a whaler : —

188 TRINGA CANUTUS.

The bill and feet are black ; tlie head and lower parts are of
a delicate lipfbt red ; some feathers alon<j^ the middle of the
breast and abdomen white, as are the lower tail-coverts.
The axillar and some of the hypochondrial feathers are white,
barred with dusky. The upper parts generally are of a
beautiful glossy purplish-black, the feathers margined with
pale red, and on the hind parts tipped Avith Avhite, the
scapulars and inner secondaries with large spots of red ;
those on the rump and the upper tail-coverts white, barred
with dusky. The tail-feathers are ash-grey, margined with
white. The primaries are grepsh-black, their shafts and the
outer webs of the inner white ; the secondaries ash-grey,
broadly edged with white, except the inner, which are like
the back ; the coverts dark grey, edged with greyish-white.

Habits. — The Ash-coloured Sandpiper appears on our
coasts in small flocks in the beginning of September, or even
earlier, when the old birds usually retain a portion of the
summer plumage. Its flight is rapid, and characterized by
the same peculiarities as that of the Dimlin, the birds wheel-
ing off" to sea, and performing various evolutions, as they flit
along the shore. They run on the sands and muddy flats
with great agility, often keeping along the edge of the water,
running out Avlien the wave recedes, and again retreating.
At other times they are met with in salt marshes, and even
in pastures overflowed by the tide. Their food consists of
small Crustacea, coleoptera, mollusca, and worms. On some
parts of our coast they often form very large flocks in a\ inter ;
but they are not nearly so abundant as the Dunlin ; nor are
they in general so shy as that species, but frequently, Avhen
intent on feeding, allow a person to walk up pretty close to
them. They are sometimes sold in our markets, and are
not inferior in flavour to the Golden Plover, I have seen
this species pretty late in summer, and in 1818 shot one at
Aberdeen in its red ])lumage ; but it has not been found
breeding with us. M. Temminck states that it breeds in the
northern regions, living in summer in the marshes. I have
seen the young in its flrst plumage in Scotland, and have
now before me a si)ecimen from Davis Straits, Avhich is
marked as follows.

ASH-COLOURED SANDPIPER. 189

Yorxo. — Tlic l)ill iiiul feet arc ^rcyisli-hlack. Tlu' iij)pcr
part ttf flic licad is dusky, tlie foatliers ed<;ed with groyish-
Avliitc ; the hiud-ncck ])alc-u,rcy, streaked witli wliitish ; tlie
rest of the upper parts ash-|;rcy, cacli feather with a douhk*
margin of hrownish-hlack and Avhitc ; but the featliers of the
rump and the upper tail-coverts white, barred with dusky.
The tail-feathers are ash-grey, margined with dusky and
white ; as are the inner secondary quills, the outer and their
coverts grey, edged with white ; the primaries blackish -grey,
similarly edged. The throat is white ; the cheeks, sides of
the neck, its fore-part, and the sides of the body, greyish-
white, streaked and barred with grey ; the rest of the lower
parts white.

Remarks. — It is unnecessary now to trace all the names
given by authors to this species, Avhich, as M. Temminck
ol)serves, " is repeated, in the systems, under seven different
appellations." It appears to be generally distributed at
different seasons over Europe and North America, moving
southward in autumn, and returning in the beginning of
summer to the polar regions.

190

TRINGA PECTORALIS. THE PECTORAL
SANDPIPER.

Pectoral Sandpiper. Tringa pectoraUs.. Aud. Ornith. Biogr. III. 601 ;

V. 582.
Bocasseau pectoral. Tringa pcctoralis. Temm. Man. d' Ornith. lY. 397.
Tringa pectoralis. Pectoral Sandpiper. Jenyns, Brit. Vert. Anini. 210.

Bill a sixth longer than the head, scarcely deflcxed at the
end ; tail with the middle feathers liointed and much longer
than the lateral, of which three on each side are equal; tarsus
an inch and a twelfth and a half long ; bill olicaccous, dushy
toward the end; feet dull yellowish-green. In winter, the
feathers of the upper parts greyish-brown, with a darher
medial streak, and pale brownish-grey margins; the wing-
coverts lighter ; the rump dusky ; the primary quills blackish-
brown, the first with its shaft white, the secondaries grey
edged tvith white, as are the tail-feathers, except the middle,
which are dusky toward the end; cheeks, sides, and fore part
of the neck, xoith ptart of the breast and the sides of the body
greyish-white, streaked with dusky ; the chin and loioer parts
white. In summer, the feathers of the upper p)arts brownish-
black, broadly margined with brownish-red ; the rump black ;
the icings and tail as in winter ; the cheeks, neck, and part
of the breast and sides brownish-grey, ivith larger streaks of
brownish-black.

Male in Winter. — Tliis species, of -which only three
individuals have been obtained in England, I describe from
American specimens, one of which was preserved in spirits,
and anotlicr presented to mc by Mr. Audubon. Tlie form is
ovate and compact, but rather slender ; the neck of moderate
length ; the head rather small, oblong, compressed, and

PECTORAL SANDPIPER. 191

rouiulcd above. Tlu' bill is a little longer tliaii the head,
straight, slender, iiexible, somewhat taperiu;;- or su])-( ylin-
drical, compressed at the base, but depressed toward the
cud, Avhere it is a little enlarged and very slightly deflexed ;
the upper mandible with the dorsal line straight, a little
decurved at the tip, which is obtusely pointed, the ridge
convex, a little flattened toward the end, the nasal groove
extending almost to the end ; lower mandible with the
angle very long and extremely narrow, the (bnsal line nearly
straight, the sides grooved, the tij) a litth' widened, but
tapering to a blunt j)oint.

The mouth is extremely narrow, as in all the species ;
the upper mandible internally marked with two grooves, and
having a central double lino of reversed ])apilla?. The
tongue, which is eleven-tweltths of an inch long, is very
slender, trigonal, tapering, channelled above, and pointed.
The a^sophagus four inches and a half long, narrow, with a
bulbiform proventriculus ; the stomach large, roundish, ten-
twelfths in length, nine in breadth, with strong lateral
muscles, and dense, thin, longitudinally rugous epithelium.
The intestine is eleven inches and a half in length, a twelfth
and a half in w idth ; the ca?ca an inch and a quarter long,
one-twelfth in width.

The eyes arc rather small. The nostrils basal, linear, per-
vious, a twelfth and a quarter in length. Apertures of ears
moderate. The legs of moderate length, slender; the tibia
bare to the extent of seven-twelfths of an inch ; the tarsus
compressed, with twenty anterior scutella, and a gieater
number behind. The first toe small, slender, and elevated ;
the anterior toes rather long and slender, slightly emargi-
nate, separated to the base, and without vestige of webs ;
the inner with twenty, the middle toe with twenty-five, the
outer with twenty-five scutella ; the outer and inner toes of
about equal length ; the claws rather long, slightly arched,
compressed, acute, that of the middle toe much larger, with
the inner edge dilated.

The plumage is soft, but rather firm, blended on the
lower parts, somewhat distinct on the upper. Wings long,
pointed, extending when closed a little beyond the tail ;

192 TRINGA PECTORALIS.

primaries taporing, obtuse, the first l(>n':i:ost, the second con-
siderahlv ^<h(n•tev, the rest ve^idaily graduated ; outer secon-
daries short, obliquely rounded, with a short point, the inner
elon«?ated and taperiufjj, the longest about an inch shorter
than the tip of the closed wing. Tail of twelve feathers,
rather short, the three outer on each side rounded and equal,
the rest gi-adually elongated, the two middle pointed, and
exceeding the lateral by half-an-iuch.

The bill is olivaceous, becoming brownish-black at the
end. The feet dull greenish-yellow, with the claws black.
The feathers of the upper parts are greyish-brown, with a
dark(>r medial streak, and pale brownish-grey margins ; the
wing-coverts lighter, and the upper tail-coverts darker. The
primarv ([iiills and coverts are blackish-broAvn, with a tinge
of grev, the shaft of the first quill and that of the first covert
white ; the secondaries light brownish-grey, narrowly mar-
gined with Avhite ; the inner like the feathers of the back.
The tail-feathers are light brownish-grey, narrowly mar-
gined and tipi)ed with white, the tAvo medial dusky toward
the end. A whitish band streaked with dusky extends over
the eve ; the loral band brown ; a small white space on
the throat ; the cheeks, sides of the neck, its fore part, a
considerable portion of the breast, and the upper part of the
sides greyish-white, streaked with dusky; the rest of the
lower parts white ; axillar feathers, and some of the lower
wing-coverts, pure white ; those toward the edge of the wing
dusky grey, with white margins ; the larger coverts grey, as
is the lower surface of the quills.

Length to end of tail 9 inches, to end of wings 9^ ; extent
of wings 18 ; wing from flexure 5-f^; tail 2-/^; bill along the
ridiic \^Kr, along the edge of lower mandible l-fj', bare part
of tibia -frr; tarsus l~; hind toe -^, its chnv ^; second toe
-/^, its ciaw^^; third toe Yk, its claw -^; fourth toe yt,
its claw -j'^.

Female. — Similar to the male, but somev»hat larger.

Male and Female in Simmer. — Tlie bill and feet as in
winter. The feathers on the upper part of the head are

PECTORAL SANDPIPER. 193

l)r()wiiish-l)l;iik, bordered witli lij^lit ])i()\viiisli-rc'(l ; a faint
whitish line, streaked with dusky, over the eye; tlie loial baud
biowuish-bhick. On the upper parts of the body and wing>i
the feathers are brownish-bluck, broadly edged with brownish-
red ; tlu)se on tlie liiud part of tlie back but sli^litly edged ;
the middle tail-eoverts black, tlie lateral whitish; the larger
wing-coverts paler ; tlic ([uills and tail-feathers as in winter.
The sides of the head and neck, with the fore ])art of the
latter, a portion of the breast, and the sides l)rownish-gTey,
streaked witli dusky ; the other parts white, except some of
the lower wing-coverts.

ll.viJirs. — Very little seems to be known of the liahits of
this species. Mr. Audubon says it is not uuconimou along
the eastern coasts of the United States in autumn and
winter, and !Mr. Nuttall describes it as plentiful about
IJoston. The former of these authors adds : — " I have ob-
served that the tlight of the Pectoral Sandpiper resembles
that of the Knot, and is firm, rapid, and well-sustained. It
skims rather low over the surface of the water or the land,
and at times shoots high up into the air, propelling itself
with double rapidity and in perfect silence. It runs with
great agility, and probes the sand or wet earth, immersing
its l)ill up to the base. I never saw the species in any part
of the interior. Its places of resort during the breeding-
season, and the changes of plumage which it undergoes, are
unknown." It does not appear to have been met with on
the shores of Europe ; but an individual is recorded to have
been killed " on the 17th of October, 1830, on the borders
of Breydon Broad, an extensive sheet of water near Yar-
mouth, rather celebrated for the numerous rare birds which
have at different times been observed and shot on its banks
and waters. The person who killed it remarked that it was
solitary, and its note was new to him, which induced him to
shoot it. It proved a female on dissection." A second in-
dividual is stated to have occun-cd at the Scilly Islands, and
a third on the coast of Durham.

191

TEIXGA RUFESCEXS. THE BUFF-BREASTED
SANDPIPER.

Trinpa nifescens. Vicill. Gall, dcs Oiscaux. II. 105.
Triiiga rufescens. Yarroll. Linn. Trans. XYI. 109.
liutf-brcastcd Tringa. Tringa rufescens. Selby, Illustr. II. 142.
Butf-breasted Sandpiper. Tringa rufescens. And. Ornitli. Biogr. III. 451
Tringa rufescens. Biilf-brcasted Sandpiper. Jeuyns, Brit. Vert. Anim. 214.
Tringa rufescens. Bonap. Comp. List, 50.

Bill not lo/H/cr than the head, straight; tail with the
middle feathers considerahhj longer, the three lateral nearly
equal; tarsus an inch and a third in length; bill dull olive-
green; feet dull yellowish-green. Plumage in summer hlackish-
hrown above, each feather margined with greyish-yellow; the
sides of the head and neck, with the fore part of the latter, 'a
small portion of the breast, and the sides of the body light
reddish-yellow, streaked ivith brownish-black ; the throat,
breast, and abdomen yellowish-white; quills light greyish-
brown, darker at the end, their inner webs whitish, with
transverse curved lines and dots of black; the fail with the
middle feathers brown, dusky toward the end, and edged with
white, the rest gradually paler, edged with ichite, within
which is a black line.

jMale in Summer. — Tliis species, of which two indi-
viduals arc recorded as having heen shot in England, I
describe from American specimens. It is very closely allied
in fomi to Tringa pectoralis, as avcU as to the females and
vonng of Tringa ])ugnax of Linnanis, although mnch inferior
in size, and di'stitute of the niff ^\h^ch lorms so conspicuous
a feature in the male of that bird ; and is distinguished from
all our Tringic hy the beautiful markings on the inner webs
of its primary (piills. The body is rather slender ; the neck

BUFF-BREASTED SANDPIPER. 195

of moderate length ; the head obhju};-, coiujjressed, and
rounded above. Tlie bill is about tlie lengtli of the head,
slender, straight, flexible, somewhat tapering or sub-cylin-
drical, compressed, toward the end a little depressed ; the
upper mandible with the dorsal line straight, very slightly
decurved at the end, the ridge convex, the nasal groove
fx tending nearly to the cud, the tip obtusely pointed ; lower
mandible with the angle very long and narrow, the dorsal
line straight, the sides grooved, the tij) a little widened, but
tapering to a blunt point.

The nostrils linear, basal, pervious. Eyes rather small.
Legs rather long, slender ; tibia bare about a third of its
length ; tarsus compressed, with numerous anterior and pos-
terior scutella ; the first toe small, slender, and elevated ;
the anterior toes of moderate length, slender ; the fourth
slightly longer than the second ; all slightly marginate,
separated to the base, without webs. The claws are rather
small, slightly arclied, compressed, laterally gi'ooved, rather
acute.

The plumage is very soft, blended on the lower parts,
somewhat distinct on the upper. The wings very long and
pointed, extending slightly beyond the tip of the tail ; the
first quill longest, the other primaries rapidly decreasing ;
the secondaries rather short, obliquely sinuate on the outer
web at the end, with the inner web rounded, and extending
beyond the outer, as in Tringa pectoralis ; the inner secon-
daries tapering, acute, one of them extending when the Aving
is elosed to half-an-inch from its tip. The tail is of moderate
length, with the outer three feathers on each side rounded
and equal, the rest gi-adually elongated, the two middle
pointed, and exceeding the lateral by nearly half-an-inch.

The bill is dull olive, becoming brownish-black at the
end. The iris hazel. The feet dull yellowish-green, the
claws dusky. The feathers of the upper parts arc blackish-
brown, margined with gi-eyish-yellow ; the wing-coverts
lighter ; the quills and their coverts light greyish-brown,
greenish-black at the end, with the tip whitish, the inner
webs whitish and beautifully marked with curved lines and
dots of black ; the inner secondaries like the feathers of the

196 TRINGA RUFESCENS.

back. The two middle tail-feathers are greyish-hrown,
darker and ylossed with green at the end, slightly edged
and tipped with -white ; the other feathers gradually paler,
edged and tipped with white, within which is a line of
black. The sides of the head, fore part and sides of the
neck, with a small part of the breast, and a portion of the
sides are light yellowish-red, streaked with brownish-black ;
the throat paler, as are the rest of the lower parts, and
without markings. The axillar feathers white, as are most
of the lower wing-coverts ; but those near the edge of the
wing are black in the centre, and the large coverts are dotted
with black. The dark markings of the quills are con-
spicuous on their lower surface.

Length to end of tail 8 inches ; extent of wings IS ; wing
from flexure 5f ; tail 2 ,'!, ; bill along the ridge } \ , along the
edge of lower mandible 1 ; tarsus 1 ,^o ', hare part of tibia ^^ ;
hind toe j-^, its claw ,-., ; second toe j^,, its claw ^^ ; third
toe } !,', its claw ,\ ; fourth toe ,"., , its claAV j\.

Femai-e. — The female is similar in colour to the male,
but somewhat larger.

Hauits. — This species is said to be not uncommon on
the coasts of Massachusetts, in company with the Pectoral
Sandpiper, which it resembles in its habits, as Avell as in
form ; and of which, notwithstanding the curious markings
on its quills, I cannot help suspecting it to be the young.
An individual, described by Mr. Yarrell in the JAnnccan
Transactions, vol. xvi. p. 109, was shot in the beginning of
September, 1820, in Cambridgeshire, along with some Dot-
terels ; and another, a female, was killed on the 28th of
July, 1832, at Sheringham, in the county of Norfolk.

197

TRINGA iMARITIMA. Till: PURPLE SANDPIPER.

Tringa maritima. Gm. Syst. Nat. I. 678.

Triiiga iiiaritiiiia. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 731.

rurplc Saiulpipcr. Mont. Orn. Diet, and Supplt.

Becasseau violet. Tringa maritima. Temm. Man. d'Orn. II. 619.

Tringa striata. I'lirplo Sandpiper. Flem. 15rit. Anim. 110.

Purple or Uoek Tringa. Tringa maritima. Selb. lUiistr. Brit. Ornith.

II. 150.
Tringa maritima. Purple Sandpiper. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 211.
Tringa maritima. Bouap. Comp. List, 49.

Bill a little longer titan the head, and sUghtlij deeurced at
the end ; tail with the middle feathers considerably longer, the
three lateral nearly equal ; tarsus ten-twelfths of an inch
long, shorter than the middle toe/ bill dusky, orange at the
base ; feet ochre-yellow ; scarcely any bare space on the tibia.
In icinter the upjjer parts glossy purplish-blac/c, the feathers
margined with light grey ; the head, cheeks, sides, and fore
part of the neck light purplish-grey , the sides andloioer tail-
coverts streaked with the same ; the throat, paii of the breast,
and abdomen ichite. In summer the upper parts glossy pu?'-
jylish-black, the feathers on the head margined with pale red,
on the bark with light red and tipped with white, the loicer
parts white, streaked and spotted with dusky-grey.

Male. — The Purple' Sandpiper is someAvliat larger and
considerably more robust than the Dunlin, which it very
closely resembles in summer, although readily distinguishable
on account of its peculiar markings, its shorter tarsus, and its
broader claws. In its form it is rather full, the body being
ovate, the neck rather short, the head oblong, compressed, and
rounded in front. The bill is slender, very slightly arcuate,
compressed, tapering, the tips a little enlarged and blunt ;
the ridge rounded to near the point, where it is flattened.

198 TRINGA MARITIMA.

Internally the upper mandible is marked with two grooves,
and has a central double line of reversed acute papillir. The
tongue is very slender, trigonal, tapering, with three papillae
on each side at the base, channelled above, eleven-twelfths
of an inch long. The fauces are extremely narrow. The
oesophagus is three inches and a quarter in length, very
narrow ; the stomach a roundish, compressed gizzard, three-
fourths of an inch long, its muscles large and distinct. The
intestine is fourteen inches long, from two-twelfths to one-
twelfth in diameter ; the cocca cylindrical, obtuse, an inch
and three-twelfths long.

The eyes are rather small, their aperture two and a half
twelfths in diameter. The nostrils are linear, a twelfth and
a half long. The apertiire of the ear measures three and a
half twelfths across. The feet are short ; the tibia with
scarcely any bare space ; the tarsus short, covered before and
behind with transverse plates, the anterior twenty-eight ; the
first toe very diminutive, with six scutella ; the second with
twenty-six, the third with thirty, the fourth with thirty.
The claws are short, curved, blunt, much broader than those
of Tringa Cinclus.

The plumage is very soft and blended ; on the upper part
erlossy. The winsis are very lou;;, and reach nearly to the
end of the tail ; the quills twenty-tive. tlie first ])rimary
longest, the second half a twelfth of an inch shorter, the rest
rapidly graduated ; the secondaries incurvate, except the
inner four, which are elongated and tapering. The tail is
short, the middle feathers a quarter of an inch longer than
the three lateral, which are nearly equal.

The bill is black, its bas(> reddish-orange, especially on
the; ridge of the upper mandible. The iris is dark brown,
the margin of the eyelids Avhite. The feet dark lemon or
ochre yellow, the claws black. The head and neck are pur-
plish-grey, tlie tlnoat, a line over the eyes, and the eyelids,
white. The back is brownish-black, glossy, with rich purple
reflections, the feathers margined with greyish-white. The
primary (piills are greyish-black, edged with white, of which
colour are tlu* shafts also ; the secondaries are white at the
base, that colour enlarging so as to include the whole of the

PURPLE SANDPIPER. 199

tcntli and eleventh, tlie tips also are white ; the inner four
«;los.sy black, toward the point f^reyish. The four lateral
tail-ft-athers on each side, arc ash-f^rcy, the rest <^reyish-l)lack,
all niarj^incd with <^rcyish-white. The fore part of the breast
and sides is li^^ht j)urplish-<^rey, like the neck ; the rest of
the lower parts white, the sides and lower tail-coverts streaked
with jj^ey ; the lower surface of the primary quills fj^ey, as
arc the outer Avinjij-coverts, the inner bein<^ white.

Length to end of tail 8^ inches ; extent of wings 14^ ;
bill along the ridge 1-^, along the edge of lower mandible
l-^ ; wing from flexure 5-j^ ; tail 2^ ; tarsus -{4 ; first toe -j^,
its claw iV; second toe -j^, its claw -j^; third toe -J-^, its
claw j'r ; fourth toe yj-, its claw -jV-

Fkmai.k. — The female is similar to the male, but some-
what larger.

Length to end of tail Uy inches ; extent of wings 14— ;
bill along the ridge l-pj ; tarsus-^; middle toe and claw 1-^.

Variations. — The variations exhibited by the plumage
in winter arc not remarkable ; but individuals vary con-
siderably as to si/e. The greatest lengtli is nine inches, and
the bill frequently measures an inch and a quarter, and I
have seen one an inch and five-twelfths long.

Changes of Plumage. — The moult takes place in
autumn, commencing in July, and being completed by the
end of November. In spring it is renewed, exce])ting the
quills and tail, and the sunnner plumage differs in colour
from that of winter. As this species does not remain with
us in summer, although individuals have been seen in the
country at that season, 1 am obliged to have recoui'se to skins
of foreign specimens for description.

Male in Simmer. — A male, from Winter Island, shot on
the 12th June, 1822, has the whole under surface greyish-
white, marked with longitudinal streaks of clove-brown,
broadest on the fore-part of the breast ; the axillaries wliite.
The upper part of the head is liver-brown, the feathers

200 TRIXGA MARITDIA.

margined ^vith liuht browiiish-n d ; the nock brownish-grey,
with darker streaks. The back is gk)ssy purplisli-bkuk, the
fcatlicrs pale yellowish-brown towards the end. and the
scapulars tipped with white ; the hind part of the back is
liver brown, the upper tail-coverts ])urplish-black, except the
three lateral on each side, which are dusky, broadlv ediied
with A\hite. J'lie middle tail-feathers are greenish-brown,
the rest ash-giey tinged with brown.

Length to end of tail 8y inches ; wing from llexure
5^; tail -,"o ; bill along the ridge 1^; tarsus ,"^, ; middle
toel,',,.

Fem.\le IX Simmer. — A female, from the same place, is
precisely similar.

Len"tli to end of tail 9 inches : bill alou"- the ridue 1,'„;
tarsus ^\.

Individuals, brought from Davis' Straits in 1837, are
similar to the above. In this state the Purple Sandjjiper
bears so close a resemblance to the Dunlin, that the two
species might readily be confounded by that vagiiely defined
or defining sort of person whom the ornithologists are fond
of denominating " a superficial observer." The breast how-
ever, although spotted, is never black.

Habits. — Although not extremely rare, the Purple Sand-
piper is noi very frequently met with. This happens })artly
because it seldom forms large flocks, like those of the Dunlin
and Sandcrling, and partly on account of its confining itself,
while searching for food, to the rocky parts of the coast.
Montagu mentions its occurrence on the coast of Caermar-
thenshire, near Sandwick, and in Somersetshire ; and Mr.
Sclby states that it is a common bird in Northumberland.
Mr. Dunn says it " is very numerous in Shetland and Orkney,
appearing early in the s])ring and l(>aving again in the latter
end of April, about which time it collects in large flocks, and
may be foiuul on tlie rocks at ebb-tide, watching each retir-
ing wave, running down as the water falls back, picking
small shell-fish off the stones, and displaying great activity
in escaping tlie advancing sea. It does not breed there."

PURPLE SANDPIPER. 201

'I'lic f'ollowiiit;- note, wliicli I cxtnu't from a journal kept in
1818, contains in brief" phraseology, all that I then knew of
it as a ilebridian : — '' This is one of" the tamest birds with
which I am acquainted (ratlu^r one of" the most unobservant
of man), allowing- a ])erson to a])])r()ach ^^ithin five or even
four ])aces. ]Mr. Norman Maeneil savs ho has seen tliem
killed with a tangle (that is by throwing at them a piece of
the stem of Fucus digitatus). It does not api)ear that they
arc numerous here. I have seen them at Northtown, Knsay,
and I'abbav, at times in flocks, at other times one by one.
Thev ])ick up their food (juite close to the wave ; Ikmicc Avhile
searching for it they are in coutiiuuil motion, running out as
the wave retires, and retreating as it advances. I have never
seen them on sand." The individuals described above "were
shot near Aberdeen oh the 14th February, 1817. It also
occurs along the Firth of Forth. On the 20th of May, 1831,
I saw an individual on the Bass Rock ; but neither on the
east coast of Scotland, nor in the Hebrides have I met Avith
any at a later period in the summer.

These birds appear on our coasts in small flocks, about
the middle of October, and remain until the end of .Spring.
They fly in curves, sweeping over the sea when removing-
fi'om one place to another, and now and then emitting a faint
shrill cry, in the manner of the Dunlins, which they also
closely resemble in their mode of walking or rather running
along the shore, where they search the rocks and fuci for
small testaceous mollusca, crabs, and onisci. No instance of
their breeding in this country has yet been recorded. Dr.
Kichardson states that it is common on the shores of Hud-
son's Bay, where it breeds. The eggs are " pyriform, sixteen
lines and a half long, and an inch across at their gTeatest
breadth. Their colour is yelloAnsh-grey, interspersed with
small irregular spots of pale brown, crowded at the obtuse
end, and rare at the other."

Young. — The young when fully fledged resemble the
adults in winter, more than those in summer plumage, and
are as follows : — The upper part of the head is greyish-black,
streaked with pale red ; the hind part and sides of the neck

202 TRINGA MARITLMA.

arc dull grey ; the upper parts generally are f>lossy purplish-
black, the fcatlicrs niarL!;incd with -white and ti])ped with
very faint reddish; those of the hind part of tlie back, and
the up])er tail-coverts are greyish-black, the latter tipped
with white. The quills are greyish-black, edged with
grcyisli-white, some of the secondaries almost entirely white ;
the four middle tail-feathers similar, the rest ash-grey, all
edged with greyish-white. The lower ])arts are greyish-
white, the fore neck and sides mottled with dark grey, of
which there is a central streak on each of the abdominal
feathers and lower tail-coverts. The bill is light red at the
base, black towards the end ; the feet dusky orange, the
claws black. This description is from a specimen brought
in 1837 from Davis' Straits, and agrees with that given by
M. Tenmiinck, accinding to whom the young in perfect
plumage " have the feathers of the top of the head, those of
the back, the scapulars, the secondary quills, and the middle
feathers of tlie tail, dull black, all bordered and tipped with
pale red ; all the Aving-coverts tipped with broad white
edges ; the fore part and sides of the neck longitudinally
sti-iped, each feather being margined Avith grey ; large
longitudinal spots on the sides and abdomen ; base of the bill
and feet light yellowish."

Remarks. — The specific name " niaritima" is not happily
chosen ; but, as it is true, although not distinctive, it cannot
with propriety be rejected. Larus marinus, Motacilla fiava,
and many other names equally defective, ought yet to be
retained, Avere it for no other reason than to avoid con-
fusion.

M. Temminck states that it is very common in Holland,
and occurs in Norway, and on the shores of the Baltic and
ISIediterranean Seas. Mr. Audubon found it very abundant
in the United States, and also traced it in summer to
I^abrador ; while our Arctic travellers describe it as plentiful
in Hudson's Bay The American specimens which I have
examined do not differ from those of Europe.

203

TRINGA CINCLUS. THE BLACK-BREASTED
SANDPIPER, OR DUNLIN.

I'l'URE. STINT. SEA SNIPE. PLOVER'S PAGE. SEA LARK. RED-BACKED
S.VNDPIPKR. SCKAILLIG. GILLE-FEAD.UG. OX-BIRD. OX-EYE. DORBIE.

Triiiga Cincliis. Linn. Syst. Xat. I. 251. Adult in Winter.

Tringa alpina. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 249. Adult in Sunnncr.

Tringa Cinclus. Lath. Lid. Orn IL 735. Adult in AVinter.

Tringa aljiina. Lath. Ind. Oin. IL 736. Adult in Summer.

Tringa ruficolli.s. Lath. Lid. Orn. 1 1. 73G. Young.

Purre. Mont. Orn. Diet. Adult in Winter.

Dunlin. Mont. Orn. Diet. Adult in Summer. Sapj)lt. Both se.Kes in

Winter and Summer.
Becasseau Brunette ou variable. Tringa variabili.s. Temm. ]Man. d'Om.

IL 612.
Dunlin or Puitc. Tringa variabilis, Selb. lUustr. II. 153.
Tringa variabilis. Dunlin. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 209.
Pelidna Cinclus. Bouap. Comp. List. 50.

Bill a fourth lomjcr than the head, and slightly decurced
at the end; tail with the middle feathers considerably
longer ; tarsus an inch long ; hill black, feet very dark olice.
Plumage in icinter broicnish-grey above, each feather icith a
dusky streak / the sides and fore part of the neck, icith a
small portion of the breast paler, and similarly streaked ; the
throat, breast, and abdomen, white ; tail-coverts dusky ; the-
tail ash-grey, the inner webs of the middle feathers black. In
su/nmer the upper parts yellowish-red, spotted with brownish-
black ; the sides of the head, neck, and body, and the fore
part of the nock greyish-white tinged ivith red, a?id distinctly
spotted with dusky / a large patch of black on the breast.
Young with the upper parts variegated with black and light-
red ; the fore nerk, breast, and part of the sides spotted with
black ; the throat, middle of the breast, abdomen, and lower-
tail-coverts white.

204 TRINGA CINCLUS.

The flocks of tliis species Avliitli in ^vinter frequent the
sandy shores of the sea, in all parts of Britain, render it one
of the best known of its tribe. In snninier it is found on the
inland moors of Scotland and its islands, Avhere it attracts
attention by its frequently niiiii;lin;i with tlie Golden Plover.
It is an active and lively little bird, about the size of the
Sanderling, and considerably smaller than the Curlew-billed
Sandjjiper, which it closely resembles in its Aviuter })huuage.
Its lorm is compact, rather slender than robust, with the
neck of moderate length, the head rather small, oblong, com-
pressed, and rounded above.

The bill is about a fourth longer than the head, straight
until near the end, when it becomes a little decurved, rather
higher than broad at the base, tapering; both mandibles
laterally grooved nearly to the end ; the tips a little enlarged
and somewhat flattened. Internally tlie upper mandible is
marked with two grooves, and has a central double line of
reversed ])apilhTe. The tongue, which is eleven -twelfths of
an inch long, is very slender, trigonal, tapering, Avith two
papilla; on each side at the base, channelled above and
jiointed. The mouth is very narroAV ; the a^sophagus three
inches and one-twelfth long, with an average breadth of two-
twelfths. The stomach is large, roundish Avhen tilled, com-
pressed, nine-twelfths of an inch long, ten-twelfths in breadth,
■when empty elliptical, and only seven-twelfths in breadth ;
its muscles large and firm ; the epithelium dense, rugous,
and flesh-coloured. The intestine is thirteen inches long,
from tMo twelfths to one-twelfth in Avidth, enlarged con-
siderably before the ccrca, which are cylindrical, obtuse, an
inch and four-twelfths in length ; the rectum an inch and a
quarter ; the walls of the intestine very thick.

The eyes are rather small, their aperture measuring
two-twelfths and a half. That of the ear is round, three-
twelfths in dianu>ter. Thr nostrils are linear, a twelfth aiul a
quarter in length. The legs arc slender ; the tibia bare for
five-twelfths ; the tarsus eleven-twelfths and three-fourths
long, with thirty anterior scutella ; the first toe very dimiim-
tive. Avitli seven scutella, the second Avith tAventy-two, the
third witb thirty, the fourth also Avith thirty. The claAvs

BLACK-BREASTED SANDPIPER. 205

are extremely small, very slightly eurvcd, compressed, and
liluut.

The plumage is soft and generally hlended ; the featliers
of the head and neck very narrow and oblong, of the back
ovate-oblong, and more com])a<t. The wings are very long,
with twenty-five cpiills ; the primaries rapidly gradmited, the
first being longest ; the secondaries incurved, excepting the
last four, which are elongated and tapering. The tail is
short, doubly emarginate, the two middle feathers being con-
siderably longer, and the lateral a little longer than those
next to them.

The bill is black, the iris brown, the feet Aery dark olive,
when dry seeming quite black. The general colour of the
upper parts is brownish-grey, each feather having a dusky
central line ; the sides of the head and neck, the fore part of-
the latter, and the anterior portion of the sides of the body
similar but paler. AgTcyish w'hite streak from the bill over
the eye ; tlic throat, breast, abdomen, and lower tail-coverts
white. The quills and greater coverts are greyish-black, the
former with a part of the shaft and a large portion of the
Avebs white, the outer four excepted, the coverts tipped with
white. The feathers of the tail are ash-grey, narrowly
bordered Avith paler, the two middle having their inner Aveb
blackish-brown. The upper tail-coverts are blackish, except
the three outer on each side, Avhicli are white.

Length to end of tail 7-j^ inches ; extent of Avings 14-j2:5- ;
bill along the ridge 1-pj, along the edge of loAver mandible
^TJ ' wing from flexure 4-j^ ; tail 2^ ; tarsus 1 ; first toe
-frr, its chiAv a lialf-tAvelfth ; second toe -j^, its claAv -^ ; third
toe 14, its chiAv -fj ; fourth toe -j^, its claAv -f^.

Female. — The female resembles the male in colour, but
is considerably larger. In old birds there is scarcely any
difference betAveen the males and females, but in younger
indiA-iduals the males have the markings darker. The fol-
loAA-ing are the dimensions of the digestive organs of the
specimen selected for description. Tongue eleven-twelfths
long ; oesophagus three inches and two-tAvelfths in length ;
stomach elliptical, nine-tAvelfths long, seven-and-a-half-

20G TRINGA CINCLUS.

twelfths in breadth ; intestine thirteen inches long, from
two-and-a-half-twelfths to one-twelfth in width ; coeca an
inch and seven-twelfths long.

Length to end of tail 8 inches ; extent of wings 1414 ;
bill along the ridge 1-j^, along the edge of lower mandible
l_i_ ; wing from tlexuro 4-^ ; tail 2^ ; tarsns 1 ; first toe -j^,
its claw a half-twelfth ; second toe -^-j, its claw -fj ; third toe
14, its claw -j^ ; fourth toe -j^, its claw ■^. Eye ^ ; ear -pj.

Vakiations. — Individuals vary considerably in size ;
males being from seven to eight inches in length, and from
fourteen to fifteen in extent of wing ; females from seven
and a half to eight and a half inches in length, and from
thirteen and a half to fifteen in extent of wing. The bill
varies greatly in length, measuring in some individuals an
inch and one-twelfth, in others an inch and four-twelfths.
Individuals vary also in the tints of their plumage, some
being more grey than others, and the nuirkings of the fore-
neck and sides being more or less decided.

Changes of Plumage. — The moult is generally com-
pleted by the middle of November, when the birds present
the appearance indicated above. The quills and tail-feathers
are not renewed until the next annual moult, but the other
feathers are changed in spring and summer. 13y the middle
of Mav the appearance is as follows.

Mai.k in Summer. — The bill and feet are as in winter.
The ([uills, tail-featlicrs, and coverts are also tb.e same. The
upi)er part of the head is variegated with brownish-black
and vellowi.sh-red, the margins of the feathers being of the
latter colour. Tlie feathers of the back and the scapulars
are similarly marked, the latter barred on the edges. A very
snuill i)art of tlii' throat is white; the sides of the head and
neck, the fore part of tlu' latter, and the nape greyish-white,
more strongly marked with blackish-broAvn than in winter;
the feathers then being white, with a large brownish-black
spot toward the end, their edges fringed with white ; the
breast black, or variegated with white and black ; rest of the
lower parts white.

BLACK-BREASTED SANDPIPER. 207

Female in Summer. — The female is similar to tlie male,
but with the black patch on the breast less extended.

A further change takes place, for, like the l^tarmif^an,
this bird seems to be in moult all the year round. After the
end of July, the feathers of the breast, of which the terminal
portion is black, are substituted by others having a much
smaller portion of their extremity of that colour. In the
beginning of September the grey feathers, characteristic of
the winter ]dumage, aj)p(vir here and there, and by degrees
the whole plumage is renewed.

Habits. — In the end of August or the beginning of
September, the Dunlins make their appearance on our shores
in flocks, which are of various sizes, from a few individuals
to several hundreds. At high water they generally betake
themselves to the headlands, or rest on the sands ; but when
the tide recedes they are all in motion. Their flight is very
rapid, being performed by regularly-timed beats of the wings,
with occasional intermissions. It is seldom that they fly in
a direct course, but even in proceeding from one place to
another in search of food they wheel off* to sea, and often
perfoim various evolutions before alighting. Now they are
seen stretching away over the waves, at one time scarcely
discernible on account of the distance and their dusky
colour, but next moment glancing in the light, as they
simultaneously turn their lower surface to the view. In this
respect, however, they are not singular, the Sandcrlings and
Ring-Plovers exhibiting the same alternate exposure of the
upper and lower surfaces, as they wheel over the sea or
along the beaches. On alighting the Dunlins stand for a
few moments, then disperse, and commence probing the
sands, in which they engage with so much earnestness that
one may sometimes get quite close to them. On the sands
of the Hebrides I have sometimes found them so unsus-
picious as to allow me to walk round them at a distance, in
order to drive them together before shooting ; but in places
where they arc much disturbed, they are usually very shy.
Their food consists of small bivalve testacea, wonns, and
other diminutive marine animals, as well as coleopterous

208 TRIXGA CIXCLUS.

insects, in ponndini;- which a groat c^nantity of sand, gene-
rally of a black colour, is employed by the gizzard. If it be
pleasant to gaze upon the Hocks as they sweep over the
water, it is not less so to watch them searching the shores.
They are seen moving about in a quiet manner, never inter-
fering with each other, but busily picking up the food ^vhich
conies in their way, or which they discover by tapping or
probing, without, however, thrusting their bills deep into the
sand or mud. Frequently, keeping along the edge of the
water, they are seen to run out as the wave retires, and
retreat as it advances on the beach. In still shallow water
they may often be seen wading, and it is observable that
their bills are just about the length of their tarsi and the
exposed part of the tibia ; but they never go beyond their
depth or resort to swimming, although when wounded,
should one drop into the water, it floats buoyantly, and is
capable of advancing. Their ordinary cry when on wing is
a single shrill peep, and when feeding a softer and less loud
note. Very frequently they associate Avith Sanderlings,
sometimes Avith Iling- Plovers ; but although while feeding
they may often be seen mingling with Curlews, lledshanks,
Godwits, or Oyster-catchers, they separate from these birds
when put up, as their mode of flight is different. On sands
in the vicinity of towns, or in poi)ulous districts, being much
persecuted, they become very Avary in winter ; and the best
time for shooting them is during ebb, when they are more
keenly engaged in searching for food. Although they fre-
quent the exposed beaches on the coast, they prefer the sands
of estuaries, and from September to May are scattered over
the Avhole extent of our shores, but for the most part dis-
appear from tlie northern \rdvts of Scotland. It may be
supposed that nuiltitudes of these birds are of foreign origin,
and visit us, like the Woodcock, when their native country
becomes too cold for tlicm ; but it is probable that a very
large jjroportion is iiidig(MU)Us.

The Duulius in fact breed in great numbers on the heaths
of many parts of Scotland, and its larger islands, where they
mav be found scattered in the haunts selected by the Ciolden
I'hners, with which they are so frequently seen in company

BLACK-BREASTED SANDPIPER. 209

that they Imve popularly obtained tlio name of Plovers'
l*a<;('S. Sometimes about the middle of April, but always
before that of May, they are seen dispersed over the moors in
pairs like the birds just named, whieh at this season they
•greatly resemble in manners. From this period until the end
of August none arc to be found along the shores of the sea,
instead of searching Avhich, they now seek for insects and
worms, in the shallow pools, soft ground, and by the edges
of lakes and marshes. The male frequently flies up to a
person intruding upon his haunts, and sometimes endeavours
to entice him away by feigning lameness.

The nest, which is composed of some bits of withered
grass or sedge, and small twigs of heath, is placed in a slight
hollow, generally on a bare spot, and usually in a dry place
like that selected by the Golden Plover. The eggs, always
four, are ovato-pyriform, an inch and four or five-twelfths in
length, eleven-twelfths or a little more in breadth, and have a
light greyish-green, or sometimes greenish-yellow, or brownish
ground, irregularly marked all over with spots and patches
of umber-brown and light pur])lish-grey, more numerous
toward the larger end, where they are often confluent. The
female sits very assiduously, often allowing a person to come
(piite close to her before removing, which she does in a flut-
tering and cowering manner.

The young, which are covered with close stiffish down,
are variegated with yellowish-grey and dark brown, with the
bill dusky, and the feet yellowish-brown. Like those of the
Golden Plover and Lapwing, they leave the nest immediately
after exclusion from the e'j:!;<^, run about, and Avhen alarmed,
conceal themselves by sitting close to the ground, and remain-
ing motionless. If at this period a person approaches their
retreat, the male especially, but frequently the female also,
flies up to meet the intruder, and uses the same artifices for
deceiving him as nniny other birds of this family. After thev
are able to shift for themselves, the young remain several
weeks on the moors with their parents, both collecting into
small flocks, which are often intemiigled with those of the
Golden Plover, and often in the evenings uniting into larger.
They rest at night on the smoother parts of the heath, and

210 TRIXGA CINCLUS.

both species, when resting by day, either stand or lie on the
ground. When one advances within a hundred yards of such
a flock, it is pleasant to see thcni stretch up their wings, as if
preparing I'ur flight, utter a few low notes, and immediately
stand on the alert, or run a short way; but at this season
they are not at all shy. Towards the end of August, the
diflerent colonics betake themselves to the sea-shore. On
the large sand-fords of the outer Hebrides, I have at this
season seen many thousands at once, running about with
great activity in search of food. After a few weeks the hosts
break up and disperse, few if any remaining during the
winter. On most parts of the sandy coasts of the main
land, however, they are then plentiful, and in England are
equally so.

The above account of the habits of the Dunlin is entirely
the result of my own observation. Besides collecting in-
formation and procuring specimens, I have, before penning
it, betaken myself to the shores of the Firth of Forth, to
observe its manners once more, and procure fresh individuals,
of which Ave, shot by myself on the 11th of October, 1837,
are now (the lJ3th) on my table. On consulting various
books, I observe nothing recorded in them that has not
occurred to myself. I have, therefore, only to add that the
flesh of the Dunlin is dark, and not remarkably good, being
much inferior to that of the Snipe ; but that the eggs are
delicious.

P.S. In the history of a bird many little circumstances
occur which few people think it worth wliile to notice, but
wliich are of the greatest importance, both as illustrative of
the habits of the s])ecies and as indicative of its affinities.
Thus, having at various times collected by observation a
number of particulars relative to the Dunlin, and having
related them as above, I yet found that some things were
wanting, wliicli I might indeed imagine, as otlu'rs liave done
in like cases, but which it seemed to me necessary to see
with my own eyes. I therefore, on the 9th of September,
1840, walked to Musselburgh, where I was informed that
the Sandpipers were very abundant ; and having betaken
my.self to the mouth of the Esk soon after the tide had

]51.ACK-BREASTEI) SANDPirEU. 211

turned, was gratified by tlie .sight of a great nuuiber of
Duiilius and Ring-Plovers. In the first phice, 1 met with
two flocks reposing, th(! one among some thin h(,'rhage,
composed chiefly of Ghiux maritima ; the other on a slightly
elevated part of the sand, just above water-mark. Indi-
viduals of both species were intermingled, all lying flat on
the ground, and in a crouching attitude, with the neck drawn
in. Thus, as I have elsewhere observed, these birds repose
during the period of high water in unfrequented places along
the shore, and generally, especially if there be a strong-
wind, in a decumbent posture. On my approacliing them,
they dispersed, and began to search for food. Presently
straggling bands flew in from a distance, and alighted on
the shore. The Dunlins on such occasions come gliding on
outspread wings, which in alighting they extend and elevate
a little. They then run a few steps, and stand a short time, or
at once commence their search. These bands were remarkably
intent on seeking for food, so that I was allowed to walk up to
about fifteen paces from one of them. In this flock of about
fifteen, two limped, apparently having had one of their legs
damaged by shot, yet they seemed scarcely less active than
the rest. Being in a muddy place which probably afforded
a good supply of food, they did not run much, but yet moved
quickly about, with their legs a little bent, the body hori-
zontal, the head a little declined, and the bill directed
forwards toward the ground at an angle of about forty-five
degi'ees. I observed that they seemed in general merely to
touch the surface, b\it also sometimes to introduce their bill
into the mud for about a fourth of its length ; but this
always with a rapid tapping and somewhat wriggling move-
ment, and not by thrusting it in sedately. This flock having
flown away, I observed another of about twelve individuals
alight at a little distance on the other side of the mill-
stream. Being very intent on tapping the mud, they allowed
me to approach Avithin ten paces, so that I could see them
very distinctly. I was surprised to hear from them a very
gentle warble, which was composed of feeble notes somewhat
resembling the syllables pee-pee-pee, continually repeated,
and with more frequency when the individuals came very

212 TKLXGA CIXCLUS.

near each other. These notes conkl not he heard at a
greater distance than twenty yards, and Avouhl thus he en-
tirely lost to the casual ohserver. All at once I heard a
sin<i;ular noise, -vvhicli might he likened to a cough, shrill
and Iceble as it Avas, and presently found that it came from
one which, having picked up something too large for its
gullet, stood endeavouring to swallow it by repeated jerks,
at each of which it emitted a sharp wheezing or hissing
sound. The rest paid no attention to the distressed bird,
which in about three minutes got the morsel down, and
resimied its search. While thus busily employed, and quite
regardless of me, although so near that I could see their
little dusky eyes, and distinguish by its tints one individual
from another, a Sandpiper, Tetanus hypoleucos, came silently
gliding over them at the height of not more than three feet.
It was beautiful to see how they all rose simultaneously on
wing, to the height of from two to four feet ; and finding
tliat they had no cause of alarm, immediately re-alight. I
now stnuk my note-book against my liand, when tliey all
rose, but alighted about five yards off", and three of them
came Avithiu ten paces of me. As nothing more was to he
seen, I examined the marks made by them in the nuul.
Although it was soft, very few footmarks were left ; but the
])lace was coven^d Avith numberless small holes made by their
bills, and forming little groups, as if made by the individual
birds separately. Of these impressions very many were mere
hollows not larger than those on a thimble, and not half a
twelftli of an inch deep; others scarcely perceptible ; while
a few were larger, extending to a depth of two-twelfths ; and
here and there one or two to the depth of nearly half-an-inch.
On scra]>ing the nnul, I could perceive no worms or shells.
It is thus clear that they search by gently tapping, and it
a])pears that they discover the object of their search rather
by tlie kind of resistance which it yields, than by touch like
that of the liuman skin.

When searching the Ix^aches on which waves are
breaking, and when they are necessarily in very rapid
motion, they utter louder, although still faint cries ; and by
stooping more rapidly se(>m to jerk up their tail, although it

BLACK-BREASTED SANDPIPER. 213

is seldom taiscd above the level of the back. None of the
birds of this family d(>prcss the tail wlien stooping, and
painters err who represent them as doinjj;' so. The Kin^-
Plover flies very nearly in the same manner as the Dunlin,
but proceeds in a somewhat different way, as will be seen
in my description of the habits of that species.

The Dunlin is most extensively dispersed, being found
alon<; the shores of both continents, from the polar regions
to the tropics.

Young. — When fledged, the young are as f dlows : — The
hill is black; the iris dusky; the feet dark greenish-brown.
The upper parts are variegated with black and light red, as
in the adult ; and the fore-neck, breast, and part of the sides
are spotted with black ; the middle of the breast, the abdomen,
lower tail-coverts, and throat white. They begin to moult
in September, and by the middle of November have acquired
tlie appearance of the old birds at that season ; but may
generally be distinguished by having the dark spots larger,
and the fore-neck rufous.

Remarks. — Montagu, in the Supplement to his Ornitho-
logical Dictionary, expressed his belief, founded on the com-
parison of individuals at difft^rent seasons, that the Purre
and the Dunlin of former writers are merely the same bird
in its winter and summer plumage. M. Temminck has con-
firmed this view ; and other writers, assuming to themselves
nuich merit in further corroborating the statements of these
i>xcellent ornithologists, have chimed in Avith them. For
my own part, having studied the Dunlin before consulting
books, I Avas afterAvards surprised to learn that Linnaeus and
others had considered the summer black -breasted bird as of
a difierent species from the white-breasted one of winter.
]]ut my opportunities of observation were much superior to
those ot the persons alluded to, for the Dunlins bred within
a mile of my habitation, and in vast numbers resorted to the
sands before it.

There is some reason for thinking that two species occur
in Britain, and are confounded under the name of Tringa

214 TRINGA CINCLUS.

Cinclus. A male shot in the Pentland Hills in June, 1840,
and a female shot at Ythan Mouth on the ITth of May, 1851,
hesides being of comparatively small size, have less black on
the breast, and that copiously intermixed with white, the
feathers haviii*:: only a large spot toward the end. The birds
that visit the eastern coasts of Scotland in autumn seem in
general much larger ; but observations are wanting on this
subject.

In Septeml)er and October the Dunlins arc often exceed-
ingly fat, the quantity of adi]iose matter that covers the
abdonuMi externally, and distends it from Avithin, being truly
surprising. In this respect, however, they do not ditfer
from the other species of the genus. I have found minute
testaceous mollusca in the stomach of this bird, and fre-
(pu'utly small white worms from a cpiarter to half-an-inch in
length, along with mud and mineral particles.

215

TRINGA SUBARQUATA. THE CURLEW-BILLED
SANDPIPER.

PIGMY CURLEW. I'IG.MY S.\NDPIPEU.

Scoliipa.x subarquata. Oiucl. Syst. Nat. I. 6.58. Summer.

Numenius africanus. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 712. "Winter.

Pigmy Curlew. Mout. Orn. Diet. Supplt.

Becasseau cocorli. Tringa Subarquata. Temm. Man. d'Orn. II. 609.

Tringa subarquata. Flcm. Brit. Anim. 107.

Ciu-lew Sandpiper. Tringa subarquata. Audub. Orn. Biogr. III. 444.

Curlew Tringa. Tringa subarquata. Selb. Illustr.Brit.Ornith.il, loS.

Tringa subarquata. Pigmy Cuiiew. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 208.

Pelidna subarquata. Bonap. Comp. List, 50.

Bill half as long again as the head, and considerably de-
curved at the end; tail icitli the middle feathers slightly longer
than the lateral ; tarsus an inch and a quarter long; bill
black, feet very dark olive. Plumage in icinter broicnish-grcy
above, each feather ivith a dusky streak; the sides and fore
part of the neck, ivith a small portion of the breast, greyish-
irhite, streaked ivith brownish-grey ; the throat, breast, and
abdomen, ichitc; the tail-coverts tvhite, the tail brownish-grey.
In summer the dipper parts of the body black, mottled and
streaked with light red; the sides of the head, the fore imrt and
sides of the neck, and the breast, bright yellowish-red, the neck
faintly streaked with dusky; the tail-coverts white, spotted ivith
brown and red, the tail brownish-grey glossed ivith green. Young
with the feathers of the upper parts greyish-black glossed with

216 TRINGA SUBARQUATA.

green, (hirkcr t(iinir<h tJw inarfi'uni, and eth/ed n'tf' ichite; the
fore part of the neck pale reddiah, fainthi >itreahed le'itli duaku,
the rest of the loner parts nJiite. as are tlie n2)per tail-eoverts,
wJi'trh are rerff narronl// tipjwd u-itJt dnnkj/.

Ai.TiioiGii description may fail in convi^ying' a cloar idea
of the differences hetwcen the Curlew-billed and the Black-
breasted Sandpiper, these birds are perfectly distinct, and
niav easily be distinguished by one Avho has specimens to
compare. The present species is considerably larger, with
the bill, tarsi, and Avings much longer, and in all stages has
the upper tail-coverts white, whereas most of them are black
in the other species. But, as it can very seldom be obtained
for comparison, long-billed individuals of the Black-breasted
Sand})iper are liable to be mistaken for it, in the winter
season, when the colours of the two species are very similar.
The idea of referring birds so closely allied to two different
genera, seems to me quite preposterous.

Male in Winter. — Of a rather slender and elegant
form, with the body compact, the neck rather long, the
liead rather small, ovate, compressed, and rounded above.
The bill is about lialf as long again as the head, higher than
broad at the base, tapering, compressed, straight for two-
tliirds of its length, then considerably decurved, but not
more so in proportion to its length than in Tringa Cinclus.
liotli mandibles are laterally grooved for three-fourths of
tlieir length, with the edges rather thick, the h\)s slightly
enlarged and obtuse. On the roof of the mouth are two
series of large, hard, pointed papilla?, directed backwards.
The tongue is an inch and a quarter long, emarginate with
four papilla? at the base, fleshy for a fourth of its length, tlien
horny, extremely slender, grooved above, compressed and
])ointed. The tesophagus is three inches and three-quarters
in length, three-twelfths in Avidth, \iniform ; the ])roventri-
cular portion nine -twelfths long, A\ith oblong glandules. The
stomach is elli])tical, nine-twelfths in length, s(>ven-tw(dfths
in l)r<'adth, Avitli its muscular coat tliick, its tendons large,
the cpithcHum dense, flesh-coloured, transversely rugous at

CURLEW-BILLED SANDPIPER. 217

tlie upper part, longitudiiuilly gTOOved in the rest of its ex
triit. The intestine is fifteen inches lonj^, from tln-ce-
twelfths to a twelfth and a half in width ; the rectum little
enlar<;(Hl ; the cceca an inch and a ([uarter from the extremity
of the <;ut, an inch and a half in length, cylindrical, scarcely
a twelfth in width.

Tiie eyes are small, their aperture measuring only tAvo
and a half twelfths. That of the ear is round, and three-
twelfths in diameter. The nostrils are linear, a twelfth and
a half in length. The legs are slender, and rather long ; the
tibia bare for eight-twelfths of an inch ; the tarsus an inch
and a quarter in length, with thirty anterior scutella ; the
first toe very diminutive, with seven scutella, the second
with twenty-two, the third with thirty, the fourth with
twenty-eight scutella ; the outer toe a little longer than the
inner, and sliglitly webbed at the base. The claws are very
small, slightly curved, compressed, and rather blunt.

The plumage is soft and blended ; the feathers of the
head and neck very narrow and oblong, of the back ovato-
oblong, and compact. The wings are very long, extending
a quarter of an inch beyond the tail, of twenty-five quills ;
the first ([uill longest, the other primaries rapidly graduated ;
the secondaries are incurved, and obliquely obtuse, excepting
the inner five, which are elongated and tapering. The tail
is short, doubly emargiirate, the two middle feathers being
a little longer than the lateral.

The bill is black, with the base of the lower mandible
greenish-brown ; the iris brown ; the feet very dark olive,
when dry seeming gri^yish-black. The general colour of the
u})per parts is light broAvnish-grey, each feather with a dark
brown central streak ; the sides of the head and neck, the
fore part of the latter, and a small part of the breast and
sides of the body, grcyish-wliite, streaked with brownish-
gi'cy, and on the neck tingt^d with brown. A grevish-Avhite
streak extends from the bill over the eye ; the loral space is
faintly marked Avith grey ; the throat, breast, abdomen, and
loAver tail-coverts are Avhite, as are the loAver Aving-coverts,
excepting those margining the Aving, Avhich are gi'cy, edged
Avith Avhite. The primary quills and coverts are greyish-

218 TRINGA SUBARQUATA.

black, the secondary (|uills paler, the inner gi-ey ; the
secondary coverts giey, tipi)ed with -svhite; the shafts of the
quills are Avhitish in the middle, and there is a white space at
the base of all the quills, increasing inwards ; most of the
outer secondaries margined with white. The upper tail-
coverts are white ; the tail-feathers grey, glossed with gi-een,
nanowly bordered with white.

Length to end of tail 8-,^ inches; extent of wings IG-rrr ;
bill along the ridge 1-jAj-, along the edge of lower mandible
^tV » ^^ i",i? fro"i flexure 5^ ; tail 2 ; bare part of tibia -^ ;
tarsus 1:^ ; first toe -fj, its claw -j^ ; second toe -^, its claw
-j^ ; third toe \^, its claAv ^V ; fourth toe -j^, its claw -pr.

Female. — The female resembles the male in colour, but
is somewhat larger.

Length to end of tail Sif ; extent of wings 16j ; bill
along the ridge 1-jV; tarsus 1:^ ; middle toe \^, its claw ^.

Male in Summer. — In its summer plumage this species
is easily distinguished from the Dunlin, the breast being red
in the one and black in the other. The bill, iris, and feet
are coloiired as in Avinter, but tlie latter are of a lighter tint.
The upper part of the head is black, streaked Avith light red,
the margins of the feathers being of the latter colour ; the
forehead, sides of the head, and throat are Avhite, with small
brown streaks ; the sides and fore part of the neck, Avith the
breast and sides, are bright yelloAvish-red ; the loAver tail-
coverts Avhite, tipped Avith black. The feathers of the upper
parts of the body and the Aving-coverts are broAvnish-black,
edged Avith greyish-Avhite ; the scapulars Avith red spots along
the margin ; the quills and coverts broAvnish-black, the
coA'erts tipped A\-ith Avhite, as are the outer secondaries ; the
inner secondaries and scapulars glossed Avith green. The
hind part of the back is broAvnish-grey ; the upper tail-
coverts Avhite, barred Avith red and dusky ; the tail-feathers
greenish-grey, edged Avith Avhite.

Female in Summer. — At this season, also, the female
resembles the male in colour.

CURLEW-BILLED SANDPIPER. 210

IIahits. — Althoii^li this species is very uncommon alonj^
our shores, it is prohahly not of so very rare occurrence as it
is <>-enerally supposed to he; inattentive observers and sports-
men bein<»- a]>t to confound it with the Dunlin. It arrives
in small Hocks on the shores of the Firth of Forth, in the
beginning of September, and is occasionally met with at the
mouth of the Esk at Musselburgh, which is the only place
where I have had an opportunity of seeing it alive, and
where I have shot it. Generally mingling with the Dunlins,
it is hiudlv distinguishal)le from them ; but when seen a])art,
is observed to have precisely the same habits as to its mode
of searching the sands for food. Its flight is rapid and
light ; its ordinary cry a shrill scream, differing from the cry
of the Dunlin. It searches the mud and sands, Avalking or
running according to occasion, and patting or probing them
in search of food, which consists of small Avorms and other
marine animals, along with which it swallows fragments of
quartz and other mineral substances. I am not qualified to
say more respecting its habits.

Mr. Thompson, of Belfast, represents it as not uncommon
there, and considers it as an annual visitant along the whole
eastern and southern coasts of Ireland. " September is its
favourite month in Belfast Bay. The earliest arrival noted
is the ^oth of August; before the end of September its
departure is occasionally taken, and it rarely remains until
the end of October. The numbers vary in different years.
In 1838 they were remarkably scarce ; an intelligent shooter,
always on the look-out, observing them but twice — one on
the 3rd of September, and none again until the 23rd of
October, when four appeared. In 1845, one only was killed;
a few others were heard during the last week of August that
year. In 184G, but two were seen until the 10th of October,
on which day one was killed ; the other had been procured
on the 26th of September. In the autumn of 1837, they
were more common than usual in the bay, and numbers
were shot : a flock of about twenty birds was once seen, and
out of a party of eight, six were killed at one discharge.
My informant (who has supplied me with many specimens)
distinguishes this species from the Dunlin when on the

220 TRIXGA SUBARQUATA.

gi'ound, by its superior size ; in flii;lit, from the lower part
of the back beiiii;- wliite ; or by its call, which is very diffc^rcnt
from that of its congener, and is said more to resemble that
of the Turnstone than of other shore birds. In lSo9, they
Avere more plentiful than ever before known, and arrived
before the ordinary time, a couple having- been shot on the
2ud of September. On the 7th of that month, a flock of
from thirty to fcuty appeared, and they increased until the
21st, when not less than a hundred were seen in company
with a large body of Dunlins, though generally when a
number are together they do not associate with other species.
Oceasionally about flfty or sixty would rise together from
one extremity of the flock, and, after flying about for a short
time, would alight Avith the others. The noise produced by
their calls, especially, when on wing, was very great, and
described to me as a ' kind of chatter,' most unlike the note
of the Dunlin. This large body subsequently proved to have
been collected together for migration, as they took their
departure on that day from the bay, and not one was seen
again during the season. The Grallatorcs generally were
particularly abundant in Belfast Bay during the autumn of
1839. In 1840, again. Pigmy CurlcAvs were plentiful, and
ap])eared so early as the 25th of August ; their numbers
increased until the 7th of September, and they then nearly
all left the bay. An early arrival is generally followed by
an early departure. In 1843, flocks consisting of about a
dozen birds were observed from the 1st to the 18th of
September, when I was infonncd of the circimistance. They
usually keep to the shores of the bay ; but in September
and October, 1836, they frequented the river Lagan (within
flow of the tide at high water) in flocks. On the (ith of the
latter month, I observed nine in company, busily feeding at
the edge of the river at Ormeau Bridge ; in the following
)"ear, also, they freciuented the tidal portion of that river."

Few instances of its occurrence have been noted in Eng-
land or Scotland, and it does not appear to remain with us in
summer. It is very extensively distributed, being found in
India, at the Cape of Good IIo])e, in various parts of
Europe, and in North America. M. Temminck states that

CURLEW-BILLED SANDPIPER. 'J'Jl

on tlio European continent it occurs on the borders of tlic
sen and lakes, seldom goinj^ far inland ; feeds on insects and
worms, as well as sea-weeds ; and lays four or five eggs, of a
yellowish colour with brown spots.

YoiXG. — Having, while writing this article, a fresh
specinu'n shot on the liith of September, 1840, at Mussel-
burgh, by Mr. Thomas Fraser, Avho presented it to my son,
I may here describe it, as it ap])ears to be a young bird in its
first plunuige. The bill is l)lack, the lower mandible tinged
with olive-brown toward the base ; the iris dusky brown ;
the feet dark olive ; the toes black. The u])])er i)art of
the head and the nape are blackish-brown, streaked a\ itli
brownish-white ; from the bill over the eye is a band of
greyish-white, minutely streaked with dusky ; the loral
band dusky ; the throat white ; the fore-neck and part of
the breast and sides pale yellowish-brown, approaching to
cream-colour, the neck being faintly streaked with dusky ;
the rest of the lower parts white, excepting the smaller
coverts margining the wings, which are greyish-black, with
white margins. The sides of the head and neck, with a
large portion of the hind-neck, pale brownish-grey, streaked
with gi-ey ; the feathers of the lower hind-neck, back, and
wings are greyish-black, darker toward the margins, -which
are white or brow-nish-Avhite, the scapulars glossed with
green. The quills and larger coverts are greyish-black, the
latter tipped with white, the former with the shafts white
about the middle, their bases white, but not apparent, the
extent of that colour enlarging on the inner quills, the tips
of the outer secondaries margined with wliite. The upper
tail-coverts and some of the feathers of the rump white,
faintly margined with dusky ; the tail-feathers grey, glossed
with green, darker toward the margins, but edged with
white, the shafts of the outer and part of their inner webs
white. It is seen, on dissection, to be a female.

licngth 8-j% inches ; extent of wings lOj ; bill along the
ridge l-j-g-, along the edge Ih ; wing from flexure 5^; tail
lYt ', tarsus 1-^ ; third toe ^V, its claw^ -^.

222

TRINGA SCHINZII. SCHIXZ'S SANDPIPER.

Tringa Schinzii. Bon. SjTiops. 249; Amcr. Ornith. IV. 69.

Sfhinz's Sandpiper. Tringa Schinzii. Audub. Ornith. Biogr. III. 529.

Triujja Schinzii. Tcmm. Man. d'Ornith. IV. 40.

Sdiiuz's Sandpiper. Tringa Schinzii. Gould, Birds of Eur.

Pelidna Schinzi. Bonap. Comp. List, 50.

Bill about the length of the head, stra'tgltt, icitli the point
slightly enlarged and ratJier obtuse; tail u'ith the middle
feathers considerably exceeding the lateral, wJiicJi are nearly
equal; tarsus eleven-twelfths long; bill and feet dusky. In
winter, brownish-black above, the feathers edged with yellowish-
grey, the scapulars with light red; first row of coverts greyish-
brown, tipped ivith ichite; rump white, tail light grey, medial
featlicrs brownish-black toward the end ; fore neck and breast
greyisli-wJiite, with lanceolate brownisli-black streaks.

Male ix Winter. — Tliis species, of which one individual
is recorded as having been killed in England, is here
described from American specimens. The body is rather
slender ; the neck of moderate length ; the head oblong,
compressed, rounded above. Bill about the length of the
head, sub-cylindrical, compressed at the base, the point
slightly enlarged and rather obtuse ; the ridge narrow and
convex, broader and flattened toward the end ; the nasal
gi'oove extending to near the tip.

Nostrils basal, linear, piTvicnis. Eyes rather small. Legs
rather long, slender; tibia bare about a third of its length ;
tarsus covered before and behind with numerous scutella ;
hind toe extremely small ; the rest of moderate lengtli,
slender, slightly margined with rather pointed scales, a very
slight basal membrane connecting the outer two; claws

SCHINZ'S SANDPIPER. 223

small, slij^htly aicheil, acute, that of the middle toe luucli
hugcr, with tlie inner edge dilated.

IMiiinage very soft, blended on the lowt'r parts, rather
firm and distinct above. Wings very long, pointed, the first
quill longest, the second slightly shorter ; outer secondaries
incurvate, narrow, obli([uely sinuate at the' end of the outer
wel), the inner rounded, and exteiuling beyond the outer.
Tail of moderate length, with the outer feathers nearly equal,
the medial considerably longer and ])ointed.

Bill and feet dusky. Upper plunuige brownish-black,
the feathers edged with yellowish-grey, the scapulars with
light rod ; wing-coverts greyish-brown, first row tipped with
white ; quills brownish-grey, darker toward the end, the
inner primaries and outer secondaries edged and tipped with
white ; tail-coverts white, often with a dusky spot ; tail-
feathers light grey, the two middle dusky toward the end ;
cheeks, fore-neck, part of breast, and sides greyish-white,
with lanceolate brownish-black streaks ; the rest of the
lower parts white.

Length to end of tail 7 inches ; extent of wings l-4f ;
bill along the ridge \^, along the edge of lower mandible \-^ ;
wing from flexure 4-Lf ; tail 2-^ ; tarsus li ; hind toe ^,
its claw -j2j ; middle toe \^, its claw -^.

This species, which has been found along the eastern
coast of North America, from Florida to Labrador, as stated
by Aiulubon and others, has been introduced by }.Ir. Gould
into his splendid and costly work on the Birds of Europe,
in consequence of his having seen a specimen killed at Stoke
Heath, near Market Drayton, Shropshire, and in the pos
session of Sir Kowland Hill. In the Zoologist, vol. iv. p. 1564,
Mr. E, H. Rodd states that two were procured, in the middle
of October, 1846, within a few miles of Penzance. Mr.
Thompson, in his Natural History of Ireland, vol. ii. p. 297,
mentions one " believed, on circumstantial evidence," to
have been procured near Belfast.

224

TRINGA PLATYRHYNCHA. FLAT-BILLED
SANDPIPER.

Numenius pygmaius. Lath. lud. Ornith. II 713.

Tringa platyrhyucha. Temm. Man. d'Ornith. II. 616; IV. 403.

Triuga platyrhyucha. Broad-billed Sandpiper. Goiild, Bird of Eur. pt. XYII.

Broad-LilU'd Sandpiper. Yarn Brit. Birds, II. 638.

relidua platyrhyncha. Bouap. Comp. List, 50.

Bill half as lo)ui mjain as the head, stnih/Jit, slhjhthj de-
cnrved at the end, depressed at the base, taper'nuj ; tail with
the middle feathers eonsiderahhj lonrjer than the lateral, icJiieh
are nearhj equal; tar><iis an iaelt hnuj ; hill reddish at the
base, dusky ; feet greenisli-grey. In summer the upper part
of the head blaehisJi-brou-n, with two narrow loiujitudinal
light red bands; the feathers of the -upper parts black, nar-
rowly edged witJt red ; fore part and sides of the neek and
breaat reddish- white, spotted with brown; the rest of the lower
parts wliite ; lateral tail-coverts wJtite, witli a dusky sjMt.

This species I have never seen alive, nor have I a skin
of it ; and specimens not being procurable while I write this
aviiele, I am oblined to have recourse to the descriptions and
remarks of others.

Adult in Simmkk. — According to j\I. Temminck, the
" head and occiput are of a blackisli-brown colour, inter-
sected by two narrow light red longitudinal bands ; a band
over the eyes wliite marked with brown dots ; the streak
Ijctween the bill and the eye of a blackish-brown ; sides of
the head wliitish, streaked wifli broAvn ; nape grey, longi-
tudinally streaked with brown ; feathers of the back and
scapulars deep black, all narrowly bordered Avith light red ;

FLAT-BILLED SANDPIPER. 225

tlic scapulars further bear on the outer webs a small lon<^i-
tudiual whitisli streak; Aviuj^-covcrts blackish toward thu
end, tipped with rt'ddish-white ; throat, belly, and abdomen
of a pure Avhite ; fore part and sides of the neck of a reddish-
white, varicf^ated with small longitudinal streaks ; all the
feathers tipped with white ; on the sides of the body are
some large brown spots, and on the Avhite feathers of the
lateral tail-coverts are some lanceolate spots ; middle tail-
feathers black, edged with light red ; the lateral tail-feathers
and the quills bordered with pale grey; bill black, but
rcddisli-gi-ey at its base ; feet of a greenish-grey." The
length about 0^ inches.

YouxG IN THEIR FiRST Plumage. — " Two longitudinal
bands of a reddish-white over the eyes ; a brown streak
between the bill and the eye ; top of the head, back, sca-
pulars, wing-coverts, rump, and the two middle tail-feathers
black, each feather being bordered with light red ; lati-ral
tail-feathers of a brownish-grey ; flice, nape, sides of the
neck, breast, sides of the body, and lower tail-coverts of a
reddish-white, marked with a great number of black longi-
tudinal streaks ; throat, middle of the belly, and abdomen
white ; depressed base of the bill reddish-grey, point black ;
feet of a gi-eenish-grey. Length 6 inches 4 or G lines."

Hahits. — ^I. Temminck states that tliis species extends
from the north of Europe to the islands of the Indian
Archi])(lago, and is reported to occur also on the continent
of India. He says it is pretty common on the lakes of
Switzerland, especially in spring, but has never been ob-
served in Holland ; and states that it inhabits the marshes
of the north of Europe and America. It is not, howevei",
included among the birds of the latter continent by its orni-
thologists. Although it has been met with in Germany,
France, and Italy, it appears to i)C of very rare occurrence
anywhere, unless during the breeding season in Norway and
Lapland, where its habits have been in some measure ob-
served by Mr. Daun, whose account of them is given by
Mr. Yarrell, in his History of British Birds : — '' On its first

226 TRINGA PLATYRHYNCHA.

appearance it is -wild and shy, and similar in its habits to
the other species of tlie f:jenus, feeding on the grassy borders
of the small pools and lakes in the morasses. On being dis-
turbed it soars to a great height in the air, rising and falling
suddenly like the Snipe, \ittering the notes too-who, which
aiT rapidly repeated. As the weather becomes Avarm its
habits totally change, skulking and creeping through the
dead gi'ass, and allowing itself to be followed within a few
yards ; and when Hushed, dropping again a short distance
off. It seems to lay its eggs later than other's of this tribe
generally. I found the eggs not sat upon on the 24th of
June, and the last week in July the young were unable to
fly, a period when all other Sandpipers are on the move
south. The eggs were of a deep chocolate colour, and its nest,
like that of the Snipe, was on a hummocky tuft of grass."

In the tenth volume of the ^lagazine of Natural History
is a notice, by the late Mr. F. D. Hoy, of a specimen of this
rare species that was killed in Norfolk : — " The flat-billed
Sandpiper, Tringa platyrhyncha, and Becasseau platyrinque
of ^I. Temminck's Manual, was shot on the 25th of May,
1830, on the muddy flats of Breydon Broad. It Avas in
company with some Dunlins and liing-Plovers. From the
season of the year it had probably acquir(>d its summer
])lumage, and it very closely agrees with the description of
the nuptial garb of the species as given by M. Temminck.
This bird is rather inferior in size to the Dunlin, but may
be always readily distinguished from that species by the
peculiar form of the bill, as Avell as considerable difference in
jdumage. This specimen Avas preserved by a friend of mine,
Avho did not notice the sex."

Rkmauks. — This Sandpiper, and the Pectoral and Buff-
breasted, bear more resemblance to the Snipes, Scolo])ax,
than any of the other species, and might with some pro-
priety constitute a genus by ihemselves. The present species
has, in fact, by some authors been its(^lf made a genus of.
On the other hand, it is so like Tringa C'inclus as to be
liable to be confounded Avith it, and in description is difficult
to be distinguished from Tringa subarquata. It is probably
not so rare on our eastern coasts as is supposed.

227

TRINGA MINUTA. THE TJTTLE SANDPIPi:R.

Little Sandpiper. Tringa pusilla. Mont. Ornith. iJict. Young.
Bc'cassoau ecbasse. Tringa rainuta. Tcium. Man. d'Ornith. II. C'2.5.
Miiiutu Tringa. Tringa niinuta. Selb. Illustr. II. 147.
Tringa niinuta. Little Stint. Jenyns, Brit. Vert. Anim. 212.
Little Sandpiper. Tringa niinuta. Gould, Birds ot Europe.
Pelidna niinuta. Bonap. Conip. List, oO.

Bill about the same length as the head, straight, slender,
searevhi enlarged at the end; tail dotdilij eniarginate ; tarsus
ten-tuel/ths lung ; hill and feet hlaek. Plumage in winter
brownish-grey above, each feather with a dusky streak; the
sides of the neck paler, of its lower part tinged with hrown ;
the throat, fore neck, breast, and abdomen, wliite ; tlie middle
tail-coverts dusky, the lateral ichite ; the tail feathers ash-grey
edged with white, the two middle greyisli-hrown. In summer
the upper parts yellowish-red, spotted with brownish-black ;
the throat, breast, and other lower parts white ; the lower an-
terior and lateral parts of the neck reddish-grey streaked with
brown; a dusky loral band, and a wltitish streak orer tlie eye.
Young with the upper parts variegated with brownisJi-black and
yellou-ish-red ; the forehead and cheeks brownish- white, the loral
space hrown ; the lower part of tlie sides of the neck brownish-
grey ; the throat, fore-neck, atid other lower parts white.

This species, which in form and proportions closely re-
semhles Tringa Cinclus and Tringa Schinzii, although much
infi-rior in size, and simiewhat more slender, I have not met
Avith alive, nor even in the entire state after heing killed.
The following descriptions are therefore necessarily taken
from prepared skins.

Male in Wintkr. — The body, neck, and head are of the
usual form. The bill of the same length as the head, straight,
slender, rather higher than broad at the base, tapering,

228 TRIXGA MINUTA.

scarcely enlarged at the end ; both mandibles laterally
gjooved nearly in their -Nvhole length. Nostrils linear, a
t>velftli long ; eyes small. Legs slender ; the tibia bare for
four-tweliths of an inch ; the tarsus ten-twelfths long, with
twenty scutella. The first toe very diminutive, with four
scutclla, the second with eighteen, the third twenty-six, the
fourth twenty ; the anterior toes entirely destitute of basal
"webs. The claws rather long, very slender, compressed,
tapering, arched, acute.

The plumage is very soft and blended ; the feathers on
the back ovato-oblong, and rather compact. The wings
are very long, witli twenty-five (piills ; the first primary
longest, the rest rapidly graduated ; the secondaries incurved,
the inner very elongated and tapering. The tail is short,
doubly emarginate, the lateral featliers being a little longer
tlian the next, and the middle feathers considerably longer
than they.

The bill and feet are black. The general colour of the
upper parts is bro\\nish-grey, each feather with a dusky
medial line, and the margins somewhat paler; the sides of the
head of a lighter gi-ey ; those of the neck streaked with
whitish, and on its lower part tinged with brown. There
is a dusky-gi-ey loral band, and a whitish-gi-ey streak passes
over the eye. The throat, fore neck, breast, abdomen, lower
tail-coverts, axillars, and lower wing-coverts, are white, with
the exception of the coverts along the margin of the wing,
which are dusky unless on the edges. The (piills and greater
coverts are greyish- black, the latter faintly tipped with white.
The middle tail-coverts are greyish-brown, the lateral white ;
the two middle tail-feathers dark greyish brown, the rest
ash-grey, all narrowly edged with white.

licngth to end of tail 6 inches ; Aving from flexure 4^ ;
tail 1-fV ; bill along the ridge \^, along the edge of lower
mandible -|4 ; bare part of tibia -^ ; tarsus |4 ; first toe -^,
its claw a half-twelfth ; second toe -f^, its claw -^ ; third
toe -f^, its claw -j^^ ; fom-th toe -pj, its claw -j^j.

Fkmat.e in "WiNTKR. — The fcmalc is similar to the male,
but sliglitly larger.

LITTLE SANDPIPER. 220

Male in Summer. — The bill and feet black. The upper
part of the licad vaviej^ated with brownisli Idaek and yellow-
ish-red, the inar<;ins of the feathers being- of tht' latter colour.
The feathers of tlie back and tlie scapidars, are similarly
marked, the latter margined with brighter red; the middle
tail-coverts and tail-featliers brownisli-l)lack, margined with
light red ; the lateral tail-coverts white, with a medial dusky
streak, the other tail-featliers grey, edged with white;. The
sides of tlie head and neck are reddish-grey, streaked with
brown ; the throat white ; the loral band dusky, the streak
over the eye whitish. Extending across the lower ])art of the
fore neck in front is a broad band of reddish-grey, streaked
with brown. The breast and other lower parts are white.

Female in Summer. — Like the male.

Habits. — This species, which some have supposed to
breed in the Arctic regions, occurs in autumn, winter, and
spring, chiefly on the margins of rivers and lakes, in Ger-
many, France, and Switzerland. In the early part of autumn,
it is seen, according to M. Temminck, in great numbers, in
the salt marshes of Dalmatia. From its not having been
found in North America, nor on the north-western coasts of
Europe, while it appears to be not uncommon in Italy, and
has been procured in India, some have supposed its summer
residence to be more probably in the eastern parts of Europe,
and in northern Asia. It is, however, as reasonable to suppose
that the small flocks seen on the coasts in early autumn may
have come from the interior, perhaps no great distance. As
the Dunlin breeds extensively on our heaths, the Little Sand-
pipers seen on the southern coasts of England may be purely
indicolous. However, as yet nothing appears to be known
respecting the breeding of this species. Mr. Jenyns, and after
him, Mr. Gould, describe the egg as an inch and a tAvelfth in
length, nine-twelfths in breadth, reddish-Avhite, spotted and
speckled with dark reddish-brown. Although so many
specimens have been obtained along the southern and eastern
coasts of England, as to induce us to suppose that it may be
not very unconunon on our northern shores, it being found in

•230 TIIIXGA MINUTA.

Scandinavia in summer, no authentic instance of its occur-
rence in Scotland lias hitherto been recorded. It is men-
tioned, however, as having been observed in the neighbour-
hood of Montiose ; and in January 1849, a small flock,
probablv of this or tlie next species, was seen near the moutli
of the Don, by my son Paul, who is well acquainted with our
shore birds. Several flocks of very small Tringa> have re-
])eat('dlv l)een seen on the sandy coast of Aberdeenshire.
From one of them, an individual was shot by ^Ir. Peppe, in
the autumn of 1841, and presented to me, in a prepared
state, bv Dr. Dickie, who also informed me that his brother
saw a flock, in August of the same year, but failed to secure
any. This specimen may be described as follows : —

Bill shorter than the head, straight, slender, black ; feet
brownish-black. Tail doubly emarginate, the outer tail-
feathers on each side being longer than the next. Upper
part of the head brownish-black, the feathers margined ^^'ith
])ale greyish-red ; forehead and a baud from it on each side
over the eye greyish-white ; loral spaces greyish-brown ; hind
])art and sides of neck pale grey, faintly streaked with
darker ; feathers of the back, wing-coverts, and scapulars
brownish-black, margined with light red, changing to reddish-
white toward the end of some of the scapulars ; those of the
hind part of the back greyish-black, as are the middle tail-
coverts ; the lateral white. Primary quills and their coverts
gieyish-black ; shafts of the primaries white, as are the outer
margins of the inner six ; an oblique band of white including
the bases of the inner primaries, and extending on the secon-
daries so as to include the greater part of the ninth, white ;
the remaining inner secondaries like the scapulars; the tips
of the first row of small coverts also white ; the two middle
tail-feathers blackish-grey, margined at the end with greyish-
red ; the rest ash-grey, very narrowly margined with white ;
the outer paler. Throat white ; fore-neck and sides of breast
reddish-white, the latter variegated with brown; the rest of
the lower jiarts white, some of the feathers on the sides with
small faint grey niarkings ; the lower wing-coverts partly
dusky ; axillar feathers white. It ai)pears to be a young
l)ird in its first autumnal plumage.

LITTLE SANDPIPER. 231

Length 5-|4 inches ; wing from flexure 3-,^ ; hill -,^ ;
bare ])int of tibia -y^.y; tarsus -,^r ; middle toe -,V, its elaw -^.

Mr. Thoini)s()ii marks it " a regular autumnal visitant to
Ireland, appearing in extremely limited numbers;" and gives
several instanres of its occurrence in IJclfast Bay, and other
parts of tliat country.

Young. — Two spctdmens from the south of England,
Avhich I have examined, agree with the young in their first
plumage, as deseribcd by M. Temminek, being as follows : —
The bill and feet black. The feathers on the upper part of
the head brownish-black, edged with gTeyisli-yellow ; the
loral space brownish-grey ; the forehead and cheeks whitish,
as is a streak over the eye. The hind-neck pale yellowish -
gi-ey streaked with brown ; the fore part of the neck at the
sides similar ; the throat and all the lower parts white ; the
lower marginal wing-coverts alone being dusky, with white
edges. The feathers of the upper parts are blackish-brown,
edged witli y(;llowish-red, the outer margins of the scapulars
reddish-white. The quills are brownish-black, the larger
coverts tipped with yellowish-white ; the inner secondaries
like the scapulars. The middle tail-feathers similar, the rest
brownish-grey, edged with white.

It is to the bird in this state that Montagu's description
of the Little Sandpijjcr, in the Supplement to his Ornitho-
logical Dictionary, belongs : — " Length about six inches. Bill
and irides dusky. The forehead and checks round the eyes
very pale, nearly white ; throat and all beneath white, except
across the breast, where it is mixed with light brown ; the
crown of the head, back, scapulars, and coverts of the wings
dusky black, more or less margined with pale rufous, but
the margins of some of the scapulars nearly white. These
marginated feathers give the bird a spotted appearance. The
back of tlie neck brown, mixed with cinereous ; the quills
and greater coverts dusky, very slightly ti])ped with white ;
the coverts more largely and the primaries externally mar-
gined with white, except the two first ; the shaft of the first
quill white. The middle feathers of the tail are, like the
tedials, dusky, bordered with fenuginous ; the others cine-
reous, palest on the margins. The legs dusky."

232

TRINGA TEMMINCKII. TEMMINCK'S
SANDPIPER.

Tringa Tcmminckii. Lcisler. Temm. Man. d'Ornith. II. 622.

Triiiga pusilla. Flem. Brit. Anim. 112 ?

Tringa Tcmminckii. Tcmniiuck's Tringa. Goiild, Birds of Eur. pt. XYII.

Tcniminck's Stint. Tarr. Brit. Birds, II. 647.

Tringa Tcmminckii. Selby, lUustr. II. 144.

Pclidua Tcmmincki. Bonap. Comp. List, 50.

BUI (I little shorter than the head, slender, scareely en-
larged, hut a little deciirved at the end ; tail feathers graduated ;
tarsus ei(jht-tu-eljt)is loncj ; hill duski/, feet greenisli-hrou-n.
Plumage in winter deep hron-n ahove, eacJt feather with a
hlaekisJi-hrown central sjxiee ; fore part of the neck and a
portion of the hreast reddish-grey; throat and loner parts
white; lateral tail-coverts white; outer tail-featliers exter-
nallg wliite. In siimmer the feathers of the npper 2)arts deep
hlack, margined u-ith red; fore part of the neck reddisli-grey,
finely streaked icith black; throat and lower 2)arts white, as
are the lateral tail-feathers.

This species, the most diminutive of those -which occur
in liritahi, is distin<2:uisliablc from the last, not so much by
its smalh'r size as by its somewhat -wedge-shaped tail and
much shorter tars\is.

Advlt IX Winter. — Tlic form and' ])roportions as in the
other small species. The bill somewhat shorter than the
head, straight, slender, rather higher than broad at the base,
tajx'ring, scarcely enlarged at the end ; both mandibles late-
rally grooved nearly in their whole length. Nostrils linear,
a twelfth long ; eyes small. Legs very slender ; the tibia
bare for four-twelfths of an inch ; the tarsus eight -twelfths

TEMMINCK'S SANDPIPER. 233

\uw^ ; anterior toes ratlier lonj^, slender ; elaws moderately
arehed, rather aeiite.

The plinna<^e very soft and blended ; the feathers on the
back ovato-ohlonj;. and rather compact. The wings very
long, with twenty-five (piills, the first primary longest, the
rest rapidly graduated ; the secondaries incurved, the inner
very elongated and taj)cring. The tail is short, with the
middle feathers elongated and tapering, the outermost feather
on each side shorter than the next.

The bill is black ; the feet greenish-brown. The feathers
of the n])per parts Idackish -brown, bordt^red Avith reddish-
brown ; the sides of the head and lU'ck pale-grey ; the fore
part of the neck j)ale brown, stcaked with dark brown ; chin
and lower parts Avhit(% as are the axillar feathers ; primaries
dusky-brown, with white shafts; outer secondaries greyish-
brown, tipped with white ; the elongated inner secondaries
like the back. Tail-coverts dusky-brown, as are the middle
tail-feathers, the rest ash-grey, the outer three on each side
nearly white.

Length to end of tail 5~ inches ; wing from flexure o| ;
bill -f^ ; bare part of tibia -f^ ; tarsus -^ ; middle toe -fj, its
claw ■^.

In Summer. — According to M. Temminck, all the
feathers of the upper parts deep black in the middle, with a
broad border of a deep red ; forehead, fore part of the neck
and breast reddish-grey with very small longitudinal black
spots ; throat lower parts .and lateral tail feathers pure white,
the two n)iddle feathers of the tail blackish-brown, bordered
with deep red.

Haihts. — Very little has to be stated under this head.
It is said to breed in the arctic regions ; ]M. Nilsson says on
the shores of the seas of northern Europe, but this is very
improbable. It is seen on its vernal and autumnal migra-
tions in Germany, France, and Switzerland. Specimens
have been received fiom India and its archipelago. No
doubt it rims, flies, feeds, and breeds very much in the
manner of several other Tringas ; but, although a probable

234 TllIXGA TEMMINCKII.

history of it could bo made up from analogies, ornithologists
are obliged to eoiitiue themselves to facts, and thus are
sometimes accused by popular writers of a decided want of
imagination. These people are ignorant of the use of that
faculty, which, however, may be applied ^ith advantage to
every branch of natural history, though certainly not in
sup])lying the lack of observed facts.

Specimens have been obtained in Cornwall, Devonshire,
and here and there all along the eastern coast of England as
far north as Yorkshire ; and Mr. Heysham, of Carlisle,
states their occurrence in Roek-clifF salt nuirsh. Scotland
has hitherto yielded none, and, according to Mr. Thompson,
Ireland as yet boasts of only one, " shot by W. Purdon, Esq.,
at a fresh-water pool close to the town of Tralee, and the
one bird only was seen."

2io

CALIDRIS. SANDERLING.

Tins genus is fonncd of a single species, Avhicli in all
respects agrees precisely witli the genus Tringa, and might
stand next to the Dunlin, had it not been deprived of its
hind toe. The presence or absence of this member seems to
l)e of very little importance in the economy of the Waders,
as no appreciable diHcrence exists in the mode of ualking of
tlie Sanderling autl Dunlin, or of the Golden and Grey
Plovers.

Bill of the length of the head, straight, slender, soft and
somewhat flexible ; ujjper nnindible with the dorsal line
straight, the ridge narrow, towards the end flattened, the tip
a little enlarged, obtuse, and somewhat exceeding that of the
lower, the nasal groove extending nearly to the end, and
tilled by a concave bare membrane ; lower mandible with
the angle very long and narrow, the sides grooved, the tip a
little enlarged and obtuse. Tongue very long, slender, tri-
gonal, channelled above, pointed. Upper mandible within
concave, with a double row^ of reversed pointed papilloe;
lower deeply concave. Fauces extremely small. Oesophagus
narrow, without dilatation ; proventriculus small, its glands
oblons ; <;izzard larue and muscular ; its cuticular lining
rugous ; intestine long ; coeca moderate, cylindrical.

Nostrils small, linear, pervious, basal, close to the margin.
Eyes small; both eyelids feathered. Aperture of ear rather
large, roundish. Feet rather short, very slender ; tibia ban;
at its lower part ; tarsus with numerous anterior scutella ;
toes small, first wanting, second a little shorter than fourth,
third not much longer, all with nmnerous scutella above,
laterally marginate. Claws small, curved, compressed, obtuse.

Plumage moderately full, soft, and blended ; but on the
back and wings rather compact. Wings very long, pointed ;

236 CALIDRIS. SAXDERLING.

quills twcnty-fivo ; priinarios tappiing, the first longest ;
secondaries short, incurved, but tlic inner elongated, one of
them not nnich shorter tliau the first primary Avhen the
Aving is closed. Tail short, of twelve narrowed feathers, and
somewhat doubly emarginate.

The only species of this genus known to me has the
habits of tlic Dunlin, to which also it is nearly allied in
structure and form. How any one, misled, perhaps, by the
absence of a hind toe, should place it in connection with the
Plovers, it would be difficult to say. They avIio give it a
station between the Turnstone and the Oyster-catcher, from
both of which it widely differs, may possibly consider such
remarks " uncalled for." A cry interesting, too, it would be
to know the physiological facts and logical argimients, by
Avhich the Ardeidie are made to occupy a station intermediate
between Plovers and Snipes.

237

CALIDRTS ARENARIA. THE CO^NIMON
SANDERLING.

CURWILLET. TOWILLY. SAND LARK. OX-BIRDS.

Fig. 19.

Tringa arcuaria. Lian. Syst. Nat. I. 2oo.

Charadrius calidris. Linn. Syst. Xat. I. 255.

Charadrius calidris. Lath. Ind. Orii. II. 74L

Charadrius vubidus. Lath. Ind. Om. II. 740.

SandcrUng. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Sanderling variable. Calidris arenaria. Tcmm. Man. d'Orn. II. 524.

Calidris arenaria. Common Sanderling. Fleni. Brit. Anim. 112.

Common Sanderling. Arenaria Calidris. Selb. Illustr. II. 208.

Calidris arenaria. Sanderling. Jen. Brit. Yert. An. 183.

Calidris arenaria. Bonap. Comp. List. 50.

Ill iciiitci' tJic upper parts pale grey, with dusky lines ; tlie
lower irhite ; wings black and grey with a ivhite hand. In
>iummer the upper parts variegated with black and red; the
lower red anteriorly, ivhite behind. Young ivith the upper
parts black, and variegated ivith yellow and white ; the loiver
white.

The Sanderling is a lively little bird, very similar to the
Dunlin, in winter not easily distinguishable from it at a dis-
tance, but readily known when procured by its wanting the

238 CALIDRIS ATIEXARIA.

hind toe. It varies so much in colour, that scarcely two
individuals (an he found precisely alike. The appearance
which it presents at various seasons may he thus described: —

Male in Winter. — Bill hlack, iris dusky, feet greenish-
hlack. The upper part of the head, the hind part and
sides of the neck and the back, pale gi'cy, each feather with
a darker medial streak. The forehead, cheeks, fore part of
the n(>(k, and all the under parts pin-e white. The small
coverts margining the wing, the alula, primary coverts, and
primary quills are greyish-black ; the secondary quills paler,
as are their coverts ; the inner secondaries and the middle
coverts light grey. The primary and secondary coverts arc
tipped with white ; a great portion of the shafts of all the
quills is of that colour, and all the quills are white at the
base, the portion so coloured extending from the first pri-
mary to the tenth secondary, which is entirely white, or
with a slight grey mark. Tail-feathers grey, margined with
white, the outer feathers paler.

Length to end of tail 7f inches; extent of wings 16; bill
along the ridge 1, along the edge of lower mandible 1 ; bare
part of tibia ^ ; tarsus -J4 ; second toe -jAr, its claw -^ ; third
toe -f-, its claw -^V ; fourth toe -jV, its claw -^ ; wing from
flexure 5^^ ; tail 2j'^.

Female in Winter. — The female is similar to the male
in colour, but somewhat larger.

Length 8 inches ; extent of wings l(i ; bill along the
ridge 1 ; tarsus 1 ; middle toe -^, its claw -fj.

Variations. — The colour of the upper parts may be
greyish-white, pale grey, or pale broAvnish-grey, with the
shaft-streaks narrower or broader, and of a darker or lighter
tint. IJut the principal variations are owing to an intermix-
ture of new and old feathers, there being a constant succes-
sion, and the full winter plumage not being obtained initil
the middle or end of November.

Male in Summek. — The bare parts as in winter. The

COMMON SANDEKLING. 239

foathors of the upper [)ait of tlic head are black, mar<^iiicd
witli lii;ht red and white ; the clieeks, neck, iore part of the
breast and sides <^Teyish-red, streaked with bhick ; the rest
of the lower parts white. The feathers of the back and the
scapulars are black in the centre, li<4ht red toward the ed^es,
which are white, the larger spotted with red ; the tail-feathers
grey, excepting the two middle, which are black, margined
with light red. The wing-coverts are brownish-black, bor-
dered, and the inner marginally spotted with light red ; the
quills and large coverts as in winter.

Female in Si mmek. — .Similar to the male.

IIaiuts. — The Sanderlings appear in small flocks on our
northern coasts, on both sides of the island, as early as
the beginning of September. Their numbers gradually in-
crease, until in winter, when tliey are met with in all parts ;
they collect into largo bands, Avhich frequent the sandy shores
and muddy estuaries, often mingling with various species of
Tringa, but especially with the Dunlins. In searching for
their food, which consists of small Avonns, testacea, and some-
times insects, they run ^ith rapidity when following the
margin of tlie wave, but more sedately in other circumstances,
patting and probing the soft sand or mud with their bills,
which they seldom introduce to any depth. It is pleasant to
watch a flock so occupied, the liveliness of the little creatures,
and their clean and beautiful plumage, together with the
mutual goodwill and forbearance which they exhibit, render-
ing them most agreeable ccmipanions. When alarmed, they
fly oft' in a body, uttering occasionally a shrill cry, move with
great rapidity, now all inclining to one side, now to the other,
and performing various evolutions. In sunshine thev mav
be perceived at a very great distance by the glancing of their
white under parts. At first they are not shy, and may easilv
be ap])roach(ul ; but after being molested, they become rather
vigilant. At high water they repose on the sands or in their
neighbourhood, sometimes by themselves, but often in com-
pany with Dunlins and Ringed Plovers. Like these species
they also feed by moonlight. Individuals are simictimes seen

240 CALIDRIS AREXARIA.

on various parts of the coast during summer ; but it does not
appear that tliis S])ecies breeds in any part of Britain.

At tliat season it has been found in the arctic regions of
both Europe and America. In winter it extends southward
along tlie shores, and is very generally dispersed, being, it is
said, observed in Africa and India. In autumn it is extremely
fat, and affords delicate eating.

Youxci. — In their full plumage the young, when they
arrive on our coast are as follows : — The bill and feet are
black, as in the adult. The forehead, a band over the eyes,
the throat, and all the lower parts are white ; there is a
dusky loral band, and the cheeks are faintly marked Avith
dark grey, of Avhich there is a patch on the ear-coverts ; the
hind part and sides of the neck are whitish-grey, finely
streaked with darker ; the sides of the breast dotted with the
same. The feathers of the upper parts are black, margined
with greyish-white, the larger variegated with yellowish spots.
The wings are nearly as in the adult ; the inner elongated
secondaries grey, with white and dusky spots toward the
end. The feathers on the hind part of the back grey, darker
toward the end ; the tail-featliers gi'ey on the outer, nearly
Avhite on the inner web, the two middle darker, all bordered
with Avhite.

Remarks. — With one who looks to the general form,
structure, and habits of birds, ratlier than to some insignifi-
cant conventional or artificial characters, there can be no
doubt whatever as to the direct affinity of the Sanderling to
the Dunlin and the Tringa^. It is, in fact, a Tringa desti-
tute of hind toe, just as Phalaropus platyrhiuchus is a Tringa
with the maruins of the toes enlarged.

241

NUMENIUS. CURLEW.

TiiK Curlews arc ])ir(ls of uioderato size, especially re-
markable for the great leu^nli and curvature of tlieir bill,
which is at least twice as loug as the head, slender, arcuate,
larj;er at the base, tapcriuij; to the end. Up])er nuuidible
with its dorsal outline arcuate, the ridge Ijvoadly convex, the
sides slightly sloped, the edges involute, with a very narrow
groove; the tij) elliptical, obtuse, and extending beyond that
of the lower ; the nasal groove very long and narrow. Lower
mandible witli the angle very narrow, extending to the
middle, and bare anteriorly ; the dorsal line concave, the
ridgi" broadly convex, the sides of the crura a little inflected,
and having a longitudinal groove.

IJoth mandibles very thick, internally having a narrow
central grot)ve, not occupied by the tongue, which is short,
sagittate, narrow, tapering, grooved above, acute. Palate
with a central and two lateral ridg(>s. Throat very narrow.
(Esophagus very long, of nearly equal diameter througliout ;
proventriculus oblong, completely encircled by large oblong-
glandules. Stomach a large and powerful giz/ard, having
the muscles distinct, the tendons radiated, and the inner
coat rugous. Intestine long, of moderate width ; coeca rather
slender, cylindrical, rather short ; rectum cylindrical ; cloaca
globular.

E}es rather small ; eyelids feathered. Nostrils linear,
pervious, basal. Aperture of ear moderate, roundish. The
feet are long and slender ; the tibia bare below, reticulated
all round with angular scales ; tarsus long, similarly reticu-
late, but having for two-thirds of its length anteriorly a
series of short scutella; toes rather short, slender, with
numerous scutella above, broad and iiat with flattened

212 XUMEXIUS. CURLEW.

papillic in transverse rows beneath ; the anterior webbed as
far as the second joint ; the liind toe very small. Claws
small, slightly arched, comi)ressed, obtuse ; that of the
middle toe curved outwards, with a dilated edge.

Plumage moderately full, soft, blended, the feathers
oblong or lanceolate. Wings very long, narrow, pointed,
with about thirty quills; livst primary longest, the rest
rapidly graduated ; secondaries slightly incurved, rounded,
and acuminate ; some of the inner much elongated and
tapering ; tertiaries seven, concealed by the very long sca-
])ulars. Tail rather short, rounded, of twelve acuminate
feathers, the two middle considerably longer.

The genus Numenius is very nearly allied to Tantalus
on the one hand, and to Limosa on the other. It is com-
posed of species varying in size from that of a Domestic
Fowl to that of the AVoodcock. They are generally distri-
buted, of migratory habits, present a great uniformity of
appearance, frequent the shores in winter and spring, breed
on the moors, laying four pyriform mottled or cloiuled eggs,
and seldom associate with other species. Shy, easily alarmed,
and extremely vigilant, they are with diificulty approached.
They run with gieat celerity ; have a powerful, light, and
rapid flight ; and feed on insects, larva?, mollusca, and
Crustacea. Their flesh is excellent, being sapid, savoury,
and highly-flavoured ; and their eggs are delicious.

The only character in Avhich the Curlews differ from the
Tringinse is their having a very short tongue, that organ being
elongated and pointed in the other species of this family.
In this respect they resemble the Tantalinoc, to which they
are further allied in the form of the bill ; but from which
thev difl"er in that of the wings, the general style of colouring
of the plumage, and in having a more muscular gizzard, with
longer cceca.

Two s])ecies occur in Britain — the Curlew, properly so
<-alled, and the AVhimbrel ; the former indigenous, the latter
partially so, but for the most part migiatory.

243

NUMENIUS ARQUATA. THE GREAT CURLEW.

\\ IIAAI". WIIAl'P. STOCK WIIAAP. WIIITTEKICK.

Scolopax Arquata. Linn. Syst. Xat. I. 242.

Numcuius Arquata. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 710.

Common Curlew. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Grand Courlis ccndre. Xumenius Arquata. Temm. ^[an. d'Orn. II. 603.

Common Curlew. Numcnius Arquata. Selb. lUustr. II. 62.

Xumenius Arquata. Common Curlew. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 19-5.

Numenius Arquata. Bonap. Comp. List, 49.

Length from twcntrj-tlirec to twenty-eight inches ; hill
from Jive to seven inches. Plumage of the head, neck, and
fore part of the back light reddish-grey, streaked ivith blackish-
hroicn ; the hind part of the hack lohite, toith narroic longi-
tudinal dark marks ; the tail white, with twelve black bars ;
the breast, sides, and abdomen ichite, with lanceolate black
spots and bars.

M.\LE. — The Great or Common Curlew is generally dis-
tributed, familiarly known in most districts, and indeed one

244 NUMENIUS ARQUATA.

of the most rciuurkable of our native birds, enlivening the
wikl heaths in sunnner, and in winter giving interest to the
sands and muddy bays of the sea-shore. Its body is ovate,
and ratlier full ; its legs long and slender ; its neck also
long ; its head rather small, oblong, anteriorly rounded. The
bill is extremely long, slender, arclied, tapering, blunt ; the
tip of the upper extending about two-twelfths of an inch
bevond that of the lower mandible, which is at the base a
little broader than the upper. Owing to the great thickness
of the mandibles, tlieir internal cavity is reduced to a narrow
groove, wliich is not occupied by the tongue ; that organ
being very short, sagittate, tapering, gi'ooved above, and
sharp-pointed. The throat is very narrow ; the oesophagus
eleven inches long, of nearly equal diameter throughout ;
the proventriculus oblong, an inch and a half in length, its
glandules cylindrical. The gizzard is elliptical, a little com-
pressed, two inches long, its muscles very thick, its radiated
tendons very large, measuring an inch across. The intestine
is four feet six inches long, at its upper part six- twelfths of
an inch in diameter, at the coeca three-twelfths. The rectum
is four inches long ; the caxa foin* inches and a quarter,
their diameter three-twelfths.

The eyes are rather small, the diameter of their aperture
being four-twelfths. The nostrils are linear, pervious, placed
in the nasal membrane near the base. The aperture of the
car measures four-twelfths across. The tibia has its bare
part reticulated with angular scales. The tarsus has for
two-thirds of its length anteriorly a series of twenty-six
narrow scutella, the upper part and the sides reticulated.
Tlie fore toes are webbed as far as the second joint, the outer
web largest : the first toe with ten, the second with twenty-
five, the third with thirty-three, the fourth with twenty-
seven scutella. Tlie claws are small, slender, arched, com-
pressed, obtuse.

Tlie plumage is soft, on the upper part of the head rather
compact, on th(> neck blended. On the fore part of the
back the feathers are longisli, oblong, and rounded ; on the
rest of the back small and oblong ; on the lower parts also
oblong and blended. The tibia? are feathered nearly two-

GREAT CURLEW. 245

tliirds of tlicir Irnfrth, Tlic \viii<;s are very long, narrow,
and j)()inted ; the quills thirty ; tho first longest, the other
primaries rapidly graduated ; the secondaries slightly in-
curved with a minute tij), some of the inner much elon-
gated and tapering. There are seven stiffish tertiaries,
concealed by the scapulars. The tail is short, rounded,
of twelve acuminate feathers, the two middle considerably
longer.

The base of the lower mandible and basal margins of the
upper are flesh-coloured, the rest black. The iris is brown.
The feet are bluish-grey ; the claws black. The head and
neck are light yellowish-red, tinged with grey, each feather
having a central blackish-brown streak, darker and broader
on the U])p(n' part of the head. The fore part of th(^ back
and the scapulars are darker, their central black markings
broader and continued to the tip ; the scapulars with serri-
form yellowish-red spots on the edges. The snuiU wing-
coverts are lighter, but similarly marked ; the primary
coverts brownish-black, with the tip white ; the primaries
deep brown, the shaft of tho first white, of the rest hair
brown ; the first five quills unspotted on the outer web, the
rest with serriform white spots on the outer, and all with
similar larger spots on the inner web ; the secondary coverts
and first series of smaller coverts similarly marked. The
back is white, with narrow longitiulinal black marks ; the
upper tail-coverts barred with black. The tail is white,
towards the end tinged with red, and having twelve brownish-
black bauds. The breast, sides, and abdomen are white ; the
first with lanceolate spots, the second with broader lanceolate
spots and bars, the last nearly pure ; the lower tail-coverts
with naiTOw lanceolate spots ; the tibia white, Avith a few
narrow streaks ; the lower wing-coverts Avhite, spotted and
barred with dusky.

Length to end of tail 25 inches, to end of wings 23f , to
end of toes 27f ; extent of Avings 42 ; bill along the ridge
6^, along the edge of loAver mandible 6^ ; Aving from flexure
12|^; tail 4^; tarsus S^ ; first toe -j^, itsclaAv-j^; second
toe l^V) its claw-j^; third toe If, its claAv -j^j ; fourth toe
l-fj, its claAv yV-

246 XUMENIUS ARQUATA.

Variations. — Individuals of both sexes vary greatly in
size, the males measuring from twenty-seven to twenty-four
inches in length ; the females from twenty-four to twenty-
one. Some have more of the rufous tint on the head, neck,
and hack : hut in other respects the variations are not
remarkable.

CiiAXGES OF rLUMAGE. — The moult commences in June,
and is completed by the end of October. As the summer
advances the i-eddish tint disappears, and the feathers become
worn, ragged, and pointed, those portions of their margins
on which are the white spots generally coming off, as if they
had been eaten out by an acid. This appearance is pre-
sented by all the birds of this family which have the feathers
nuu'gined with white spots.

Ilviurs. — With the history of the Curhnv might be con-
nected, and not inappropriately, not only much of the wild
scenery of Britain, but somewhat of the progress of civihza-
tion amongst us ; but as these subjects have received ample
illustration from individuals better qualified to do them justice,
it seems advisable for us not to wander from our proper course.

"We nuiy suppose that in the middle of Octt)ber wo are
traversing the extensive mud flat that stretches at low water
from the village of Cramond to the ruins of liarnbogle Castle,
on the southern shore of the Firth of Forth. Many Gulls
are scattered over the sands, small flocks of Ducks are swim-
ming in the river, straggling bands of Terns hover and
scream along the edge of the water, here and there nuiy be
seen a solitary Gannet gliding past, and far out at sea are
some dusky birds, Avhicli may be Comiorants or Red-throated
Divers. On that shoal is a vast multitude of small birds,
probably Dunlins ; farther on are some black aiul white
Avaders, wbicli are reasonably conjectiu'cd to be Oyster-
catchers ; and here, scattered over the miry flat, are very
many grey-backed, long-legged, long-necked, and long-billed
birds — those, in fact, of which we are in search. They
observe us ; one utters a loud shrill cry, to which another
responds, and presently all are on wing. Mark how they

GREAT ('Uia.i:W. 247

fly, at a moderate height, ^\ith (■oiitructt'd neck, outstretched
bill, feet folded back, ^vide-s^)^'ad wiiij^s moved in regular
time. Away they speed, one scrcaminj^- now and then, and
alarmin<^- the Gulls and other birds in their course ; nor do
they stop until arriving at a suitable s])ot, a quarter of a
mile off, they perform a few circlinj^ evolutions, and alight
by the margin of the sea, into which some of them wade,
while the rest disperse over the sand. All we can see or say
of them here is, that at this season they have arrived on the
sea-shore, where they frequent the beaches, searching for
food in the same way as the Godwits, l^ongshanks, and
Sandpipers ; but in what precise manner they procure it, or
of what it consists, remains to be discovered. To see these
vigilant and suspicious birds at liand, wo must find some
place resorted to by them, in ■\\ hich we may draw near
without being perceived. Let us imagine ourselves in such
a place.

Here is a low tract of sandy pasture, Avith a shallow pool
upon it, and (extending along a large ford or expanse of sand,
covered by the tide, and laid bare when it recedes. Many
Curlews aiul Golden Plovers, a few Kinged Dotterels, two
or three Mallai'ds, and doubtless hundreds of Snipes, are
dispersed over the plashy ground. That old turf fold, in
■which the cattle have been milked in sunnner, will enable
us to approach the birds unseen, unless some of the Curlew^s
should happen to fly overhead and discover us, when they
will be sure to sound an alarm. Xow crawl this way, and
see that the muzzle of your gun is not fllled with sand.
From this slap in the wall, cautiously raising our heads
until we can bring our eye to bear on them, we nuiy observe
their motions. This is one of the few occasions on which a
low forehead would be of decided advantage. There, twenty
paces off", stalks an (dd Curlew, cunning and sagacious, yet
not conscious of our proximity. He has heard, or fancied
that he has heard, some unusual sound ; and there he moves
slowly, with raised head and ear attcnt ; but some appear-
ance in the soft sand has attracted his notice, and for"rettin<j
his fears, he thrusts or rather works his bill into it, and
extracting something, which he swallows, withdraws it, and

1M8 XUMENIUS ARQUATA.

})ruc(HHls, looking carefully around. Now from the surfiice
he picks up a snail, of that small kind named Helix crice-
torum, which, raising his head, and moving it rapidly back-
wards and forM ards, at the same time slightly opening and
closing his mandibles, he gradually brings within reach of
his tongue, when he swallows it. There he has dragged a
worm from the sand, and again has obtained a small crab or
insect. But now two others have come up ; they are all
\\ ithiu range ; let me fire : — there they are, two dead, the
other with broken Aving runs off screaming loudly. Curlews,
Plovers, Redshanks, Dotterels, Ducks, and Snipes, all rise,
and move to a distance corresponding to their fears, the
Curlews flying out of sight, the Snipes coming back to the
same s])ot, and the Plovers alighting about two hundred
jards off.

The Curlew is extremely shy and suspicious, so that at
tliis season, unless by some stratagem or accident, one can
very seldom obtain a shot at it. In Harris, I once shot three
from a cattle-fold in tlu^ manner described above. On another
occasion, having a musket with large shot, I let ily at one
feeding in a field as I was passing, hit it in the wing, and on
measuring the distance found it to be seventy-five yards. In
the Hebrides I have heard it said, that to kill seven Curlews
was enough for a life-time; but one, by lying among the
rocks on a point frecjiu'iited by them, might, I doubt not,
shoot as many in less than a week. This method, however,
1 have never tried, it being much more pleasant to be moving
about than lying jammed into the crevice of a cliff. When
alarmed they spread out their Avings, run rapidly forward
some paces, and s])ringing into the air, uttering their loud
cries, fly off at a ra])i(l rate. When looking for food they
generally walk sedately, — unlike the Kedshank, Avhich is con-
tinually running, stoo])ing, or vibrating, — but sometimes run.
Dry pastures, moist ground, and shallow pools are equally
frequented by them, and they may be seen wading in the
water up to the tarsal joint.

ToAvards the end of Manli they generally leave the
shores, Avhere they have resided in flocks from September,
and separating in pairs, betake themselves to the interior,

GREAT CURLEW. 249

AvluTc, in (In- lii^lu-r and less frequented niocirs, tlicy di'posit
their e^'^s and rear their young.

It is now tlie hej^inning of May. The sunny hanks are
covered witli primroses, the goklen eatkins of tlie wiUow
frin<;e tlie hrooks, while tlu' sj)ikes of the e<)tton-;4rass orna-
ment the moss-clad moor. J.et us ascend the long- glen, and
wandering on the heathy slopes, listen to the clear but
melancholy whistle of tlie Plover, the bleating of the Sni})e,
and the loud scream of the Curlew. Here is a bog, inter-
spersed with tufts of heath, among which is a profusion of
]\Iyrica (iale. iSome La])wings are coming up, gliding and
flapping along ; a hlack-hreasted Plover has stationed him-
self on the toj) of that mound of green moss, and a Ring
Ouzel has just sprung from the furze on the brae. See !
what is that ? a Ilare among our feet ! No, a Curlew, flut-
tering along the ground, wounded, unal)le to escape ; run !
she has been sitting. Here is the nest, in a hollow, under
shelter of two tufts of heath and a stunted willow. It is
composed of dry grass, apparently eriophora, eleocharis pa-
lustris, scirpus c(rspitosa, some twigs of heath, and perhaps
portions of other plants, not very neatly dis})osed. It is very
shallow, and internally about a foot in diameter. The eggs
are four, ])yriforni, excessively large, three inches long, an
inch and ten-twelfths across, light olive or dull yellowish-
brown, or pale greenish-giey, blotched and spotted with
iimber-brown, the markings crowded in the larger end.
They vary considerably in size and form, some being only
two inches and three quarters in length. Those of the nest
before us are of the largest size, very darkly coloured, and so
little contrasting with the surrounding objects that, unless
the bird had sprung up among our feet, we should scarcely
have observed them.

Far up on the hill-side you hear the loud cry of the
(/urlew, which is presently responded to from the opposite
slope ; in another place a bird commences a series of modu-
lated cries, and springing up, performs a curved flight, flap-
ping its wings and screaming as it proceeds. Presently the
whole glen is vocal, but not with sweet sounds, like those of
" the Mavis and Merle." But it is in vain to pursue the

230 XL'MENIUS ARQUATA.

hivds, for these urc llie nuili-s ; and at this season yon will
tind them fnlly as shv as they were in winter on the sea-
shore. Some weeks henee, when the younii: i^^^^ abroad, the
females, and even the males, will Unttcr around you, if you
approach the spot where their unfledged brood lie concealed
among the herbage, and will attempt, by feigning distress,
to li'ad you into a vain pursuit. Like all the other birds of
this genus, the young are covered with long, stiffish down,
and run about presently after exclusion from the eii;^, squat-
ting to conceal themselves from their enemies. Up to the
age of three weeks they are still unfeathered ; their forehead,
throat, and under surface yellowish-grey ; their upper parts
of the same colour with patches of dark brown; the bill not
longer than the head. That organ gradually elongates as
the feathers spread, and by the end of about seven weeks
they are able to fly.

At this season old and young feed on insects, larvre. and
worms. The latter are very fat, but the former are not in
good condition until the middle of autumn : about which
period the Curlews unite into small flocks, gradually dis-
perse, and betake themselves to the shores. Their flesh is
delicate and well-flavoured, and they are not unfrequently
to be seen in our markets. I am not aware of any diffc'rence
produced in the quality of their flesh as an article of food by
their change of residence.

Montagu has given, in the Supplement to his Ornitho-
logical Dictionary, an account of a tame bird of this spe-
cies : — " One that was shot in the wing was turned amongst
aquatic birds, and was at flrst so extremely shy, that he was
obliged to be crammed with meat for a day or two, when he
began to eat worms ; but as this Avas precarious food, he was
tempted tn eat bread and milk like Huff's. To induce this
substitution worms were put into a mess of bread mixed
with milk, and it was curious to observe how c:iutionsly he
avoided the mixture, by carrying every worm to the poiul,
and well washing it previouslv to swallowing. In the course
of a few days this new diet did not appear unpalatable to
him, aTid in little more tlian a week lie becajne ])artial to it ;
and from being exceedingly poor and emaciated, got plump

(iin:AT CURLEW. '2.J\

and ill lli^ll lu'alth. In tlic course of a month or six \v(.'cks,
this bird became excessively tame, and wouhl f'oUow a ])crson
across the menagerie for a bit of bread or a small fish, of
which he was remarkably fond. 15ut he became almost
omnivorous ; fish, water-lizards, small frogs, insects of every
kind that were not too large to swallow, and (in defect of
other food) barley with the ducks was not rejected. This
very great favourite was at last killed by a rat, as it was
suspected, after a short life of two years in confinement ;
l)ut hv had in tliat time fully satisfied our inquiries into his
natural habits."

The Curlew breeds on all our elevated moors that arc of
considerable extent, from Cornwall and Devonshire to the
northern extremity of Scotland ; but its nests are much
more numerous in the latter coinitry than in England. On
the range of high gTOunds extending from the Mull of Gal-
loway to St. Abb's Head, Ciirh ws are more abundant in
sunnuer than in the Grampian Eange. It is not generally
in marshes that they nestle, but on dry moorland on the
sides of the hills. In Orkney and Shetland it occurs all the
year round. It would be difKcult to (h^terniine whether our
summer birds advance southward in Avinter or not, leaving
their places to be occupied by immigrants from the north.
It has been conjectured that the birds which winter in the
south of England betake themselves in summer to the
Grampians, and that the breeders in England come over
from France. But it seems in no way improbable that the
broods, with their parents, merely shift from the hills to the
sea-shores and back again, according to the season, as is the
case with the Golden Plover and Lapwing.

This species has not been found in America, but is dis-
persed over the greater part of Europe, and probably of Asia,
from many parts of which skins have been transmitted.
China, Japan, India and its islands, are mentioned as
inhabited by it ; and in Africa it extends even to the Ca])e
of Good Hope.

YorxG. — The young are at first covered with down,
variegated with gi'cy and dusky.

252 NUMENIUS ARQUATA.

Progress toward Matirity. — Wlu-n tlio iii>t plumage
is perfected, the bird scarcely differs from the adult, except
in having the light tints paler, and the bill much shorter
and more flexible. That organ, however, rapidly elongates,
and in the second year appears to obtain its full size,
although it presents great differences in individuals, some
having it an inch or more longer than others.

IvEMAKKS. — Tliere ai'e extensive tracts of hill and moor
in the counties of Aberdeen and Banff, to which Curlews
were not known to resort twenty years ago, but which are
now more or less frequented by them during the breeding
season. Yet those tracts have not undergone any perceptible
change, except that of being better protected by gamekeepers.
It is remarkable that, though at most, perhaps all, seasons of
the year. Curlews are to be seen along the shores of the
Outer Hebrides, none bred there, or were to be met with on
the hills or moors in summer, thirty years ago, though the
case may be different now. The hill ranges of the south of
Scotland are all much more frequented by them than those
of any other tract that I have visited.

2o3

NUMENIUS PIIyEOPUS. THE WIITMBREL
CUIIMIW.

WIIIMBK1;L. LITTLK CUULKW. TANG WIIAAP. MAYl'OWI,. IIALI-CUKLEW.
C11U,K\V-.IACK.

Scolopax rhx'opus. Linn. Syst. Xat. I. 213.

Xunicnius l'ha?i)pu3. Lath. lad. Ornitli. II. 711.

Wliinibrel. Mont. Oriiith. Diet.

Coiirlis Corliou. Nunieniu3 Phivopws. Tcmm. Man. d'Ornith. II. G04.

Wiiinibrul Curlew. Xunicnius Piucopus. Sclby, Illustr. II. G5.

Nunuunius Plueopus. Bonap. Conip. List, 49.

JjOiKjth from nineteen to sixteen inches ; hill little more
than three inehes. Upper part of the head dark-hrown, with
a medial and tivo lateral tchitish bands, streaked loith dusky ;
7ieck all round pale brown ish-grei/, streaked with brown;
feathers of the fore part of the back, scapulars, and tcing-
coverts, dusky, with marginal tchitish spots ; hind part of
back white, tail and coverts greyish-white barred tcith dusky ;
chin, hind part of breast, and abdomen white ; fore part of
breast streaked, sides and loicer wing-coterts barred with
dusky.

Male. — The Whimbrel, or Little Curlew, although much
inferior in size to the otlier British species, is very similar
not only in form, but in eolourinj^. Its body is ovate, and
rather full ; the neck long ; the head rather small, oblong,
and rounded al)ove. Tlie bill is fvvice the length of the head,
slender, considerably arcuate, ta])ering, blunt, with the tip
of the upper mandible extending a little beyond that of the
lower, which at the bas(> is a little wider than the upper.
The nostrils are linear, })ervious, sub-basal ; the eyes rather
small ; the aperture of the ear large. The legs are long and
slender ; the bare part of the til)ia reticulated ; the tarsus
also reticulated, but with anterior scutella in the lower two-

2.34 NUMENIUS PH.^OPUS.

thirds of its length. The fore toes are "vvebbi'd as far as the
second joint, the outer web largest; the liind toe small, the
anterior rather short ; all sentellate. The claws small,
slender, arched, compressed, rather obtuse.

The plumage is soft, on the sides of the head and on the
neck blended, on the fore part of the back oblong, on its
hind part small, on the lower parts rather blended and
oblong. The wings are very long, narrow, and pointed ;
the quills twenty-eight ; the first longest, the other primaries
rapidly decreasing ; the secondaries a little incurved, some
of the inner much elongated and tapering. The tail of
moderate length, rounded, of twelve acuminate feathers, the
two middle considerably longer.

The bill is black, excepting the base of the lower man-
dible, which is pale brown. The iris brown. The feet light
greyish-blue, the claws black. The upper part of the h(>ad
from the bill to the occiput is dark brown, Avitli a medial
streak of brownish-white variegated with dusky, and on each
side a streak of the same passing over the eye to the occiput ;
the lore dusky brown, the eyelids and chin whitish ; the
sides of the head, and the neck all round, greyish-white,
streaked with brown ; the breast and sides brownish-white,
the former with longitudinal the latter with transverse dusky
streaks, which gradually diminish, leaving the middle of the
breast and the abdomen Avhite ; the lower wing-coverts white,
l)arred with dusky ; the lower tail-coverts with a medial
brown streak and bars. The feathers of the fore part of the
back, the scapulars, and wing-coverts, are dusky, marginally
si)Otted with brownish-white ; the primary coverts dusky,
excepting the first tipped with Avhite; secondary coverts dusky,
nuirginally spotted with white ; quills dusky, spotted along
both margins with white, excepting the outer five, which arc
so marked on their inner edges only, and the iinier elongated
secondaries, which have no spots on their inner webs. The
rump is white; the lail-coverts white, s])otted and barred
with dusky ; the tail-feathers brownish-white, or pale green-
ish-brown barred with dusky, and tipped with white, the
outer feather on each side edged Avith pure white.

Length to end of tail 17 inches; extent of wings 30;

"WHIMBREL CURLEW. 253

wing from flexure [)[l ; tail 4 ; bill uIdiiu,- the ridge S^ ;
along the edge of lower mandible 3-^ ; tarsus 2-['^ ; middle
toe 1-pj ; its elaw -^.

Fi'.MAi.K. — The female, which is larger, resembles the
male in colour.

Length to end of tail li);^ ; extent of Avings SSi ; bill
along the ridgi' o^, along the edge of lower mandible S^.

The above descriptions are taken from fresh specimens ;
one of them, the female, shot by myself in the Island of
Harris, on the 9th of May, 1818, and minutely described at
the time,

IIahits. — In the beginning of May, a few individuals of
this species make their appearance here and there on the
sandy pastures bordering the west coast of the long range of
the outer Hebrides, from one end to the other. Their num-
bers daily increase, until in about a week they are in many
places very abundant. At first they are not in the least shy,
and may easily be shot ; but in a short time they become
almost as wary as the Common Curlew. They keep by
themselves in flocks of from three or four to tAventy, not
associating even with the Curlews which also frequent the
pastures, search exclusively the sandy pasture grounds, show-
ing no preference for w(>t places, and never betaking them-
selves to the fords or pools, although occasionally they may
be seen in damp places. Their food consists of Bulimus
acutus and Helix ericetorum, which are very abundant there.
They Avalk for the most part sedately, but sometimes with
alacritv, having their neck bent forward, and their regards
fixed on the ground. If alarmed, they stand, elevate their
heads, emit a shrill tremulous cry, and perhaps fly off, or
presently resume their search. If surprised they are clamor-
ous in their flight, but usually alight at no great distance,
unless shot at. When on Aving they display the white part
of the back conspicuously, and have a beautiful appearance.
Their flight is similar to that of the C'urleAV, but quicker.
They remain about four Aveeks, the 26tli of May being the
latest date in my Journal of 1818, and thus have obtained

12^6 XUMEXIUS PH.EOPUS.

the name of May-fowls ; hut possihly the iiuli\ iihials -which
arrived first may give place to others, so that (lurin<]f that
period there may be a succession of flocks. During their
stay they enliven these sandy pastures, and their departure
always seemed to me to leave a blank, not to be filled uj)
until next ^lay, for they neither breed in any of those
islands, nor re-a})])ear on their return southward. Their flesh
is delicate, superior in flavour to that of the Curlew, which
however is excellent, and more tender. I re<;ret that I have
nothing more to say of them from personal observation, but
that they occur on the east coast of Abeixleenshire, both in
May and in autumn, but in small numbers.

It appears from the statements of authors that this species
is met with in spring and the early part of summer along the
coasts of both sides of Britain, and again in autumn. Several
persons allege that it remains in diminished numbers througli
the winter. It does not, however, appear that any occur at
that period in Scotland. Its occurrtMue inlaiul in summer
must be very rare, as I have never met with an individual
elsewhere than on the sandv pastures along the si-a-shore.
Mr. Selby informs us that it was seen on the margin of Loch
Sheen, in Sutherland, in the summer of 18o4: ; and others
have spoken of its visits to the (iram])ians. Mr. Loav, who
does not distinguish it sj)ecifically Irom the Curlew, speaks
of it as common in Orkney, where it has since been observed
by ]Mr. Salmon. Dr. Fleming, Mr. Ilewitson, and Mr. Dunn
state that it breeds in Shetland, whence it de})arts when the
breeding season is over.

The eggs, which I have not seen, are d(>scribed by ]Mr.
Yarrell as " four in numl)er, of a dark olive-brown, blotched
with darker brown, ])ear-sha]M'd, and very nuich like those
of the Curlew, but smaller, measuring two inches five lines
in length, by one inch eight lines in breadth."

From Iceland, Norway, Lapland, Sweden, and Denmark,
where it breculs, it extends southward to Africa, being found
in the intermediate ])laces in the course of its migrations.
It is probable that its distribution in Asia is very extensive,
as it has l)een found in the Caucasus, Japan, and various
j)arts of India.

WIILMBREL CURLEW. 257

Remarks. — Nuinenius hudsonicus of America is so very
similar to this species in size and colour, that in description
they can hardly be distinj^uishcd, and \vcrc it to be met with
would most probably l)c considered as the Whimbrel. In
that species, however, no i)art ot" the back is entirely white,
the rump beiu<;' all barred witli brown, and the tail much
darker. This lludsonian Curlew M. Temminck considers as
identical with our AVhimbrel, allej^ing that the individuals
which he has received from North America do not differ
from those killed in Europe. 13ut in more than twenty
instances he has made similar assertions, which the more
correct comparisons of others have oblifi^ed him to withdraw.
Mr. Selby follows him in considerinj^ the lludsonian Curlew
as identical with the Whimbrel. I have examined and
described both, and agree with the Prince of Canine and
Mr. Audubon in considering; them distinct.

LIMOSA. GODWIT.

A DIFFERENCE greater than that between Phivialis and
Charadrius, Glottis and Totanns, Totanus and Actitis, pre-
sents itself among- the birds -whieh the more recent authors
ha\e referred to the genus Limosa. Thus Limosa rufa has
the bill re-aveuate, Limosa melanma straight ; the tibia of
the lornKn- has not half so niueh bare space as that of the
latter, its tarsus is a third shorter, its toes are rather short
and broad, while those of the other bird are rather long and
slender ; and the claws of the two species are considerably
different, that of the middle toe being short and rounded in
the one, while in the other it is long, tapering, and serrated.
Differences much li>ss than these make gen(^ra,in the opinion
of many of our modern ornithologists. Ihit in this case,
seeing that the bill is of the same form, although more or
less curved, the plumage exactly similar, and the feet varying
only in their degree of elongation, it is hardly necessary to
l)reak up the established genus, Avhich, in respect to the
variations exhibited by its species, is similar to Triuga.

The birds of which this genus is composed have the body
moderate ; the neck long and rather slender ; the head
rather small, oblong, compressed, rounded above, narrowed
and .sloping anteriorly. The bill, twice the length of the head
or more, is slender, higher than broad at the base, tapering,
toward the end rather depressed, and generally in its whole
length slightly curved upwards ; both mandibles flexible,
grooved almost to the end, with the tips firm and bluntish,
that of the lower being .shorter ; the edges soft, blunt, and
grooved. The mouth very narrow ; the upper mandible in-
ternally with a dee]) medial groove; the tongue long, slender,
fleshy at the base, then horny, trigonal, grooved above, and
tapering to a fine point, (l^sophagus narrow, uniform ;
stomach elliptical, compressed, with strong lateral muscles.

I-IMOSA. GODWIT. 259

and tliin, clease. lon^^itudiiiiilly rufous opithcliuni. Intestine
of moderate length, narrow ; ca'ea small and cylindrical.

Eyes small; eyelids feathenHl. Nostrils basal, dirert,
linear. External aperture of ear rather lar<;(\ Ia^^s slender,
of moderate length or long ; tibia bare about a third of its
length ; tarsus scut(dlate before and behind ; toes four, short ;
the first very small and elevated ; tlie anterior seutelhite,
marginate, flattened beneath, with basal webs, of which the
outer is much larger. Claws small, arched, compressed, at
the end convex, and obtuse.

Plumage of the head, neck, and lo\^ cr ])arts very soft and
blended ; of the u])per parts rather conijjaet. Wings long,
narrow, pointed, of thirty quills; the first longest, the other
primaries rapidly decreasing ; the iinier secondaries much
elongated and tapering, but rounded. Tail sliort, nearly
even, of twelve rouiuled feathers.

The Godwits are very intimately allied to the Curlews
fnmi which they differ, hoMcvcr, in having the bill recurved
or straight, in place of being reavcuate ; the tongue long in-
stead of short ; the tarsi scutellate instead of being reticulate
in part. They also differ in moulting twice every year, and
in assuming in spring colours different from those of autumn
and winter. Unless during the breeding season, they fre-
quent the muddy and sandy shores of estuaries ; but in
summer they resort to marshes and the margins of lakes and
rivers, where they feed on insects, larvae, Avorms, and mol-
lusca. They form a slight nest, or deposit in a cavity their
four pyriform, spotted eggs. In searching for food tliey dip
their bill into the soft mud or sand. That organ, although not
so soft, nor so copiously supplied with nervous filaments at
the end, is very similar to the bill of the Snipes ; to which
the Godwits are also allied, though they have not the same
crouching and skulking habits. They are generally shv,
but not so readily alarmed as the Curlews, Longshanks, or
Tatlers. They walk rather sedately, but also run with great
speed on occasion ; have a moderately rapid, light, direct
flight; emit loud shrill cries; and in feeding oftcMi mingle
with other shore birds. Species of this genus occur in all
climates. Two are met with in l>ritain.

260

LIMOSA RUFA. BAR-TAILED GODWIT.

GODWIT. YARWHELP. STONE PLOVER. POOR WILLIE.

FiQ.21.

Scolopax Lapponica. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 246.

Scolopax Lapponica. Lath. Ind. Ornith. II. 718.

Soolopax luucophcra. Lath. Ind. Ornith. II. 719.

Red-breasted Snipe. ]\Iont. Ornith. Diet.

Common Godwit. Mont. Ornith. Diet.

Limosa rufa. Temm. Man. d' Ornith. 11. GG8.

Liniosa rufa. Bar-tailed Godwit. Flcm. Brit. Anim. 107.

Red Godwit. Limosa rufa. Selby, Illustr. ]5rit. Ornith. II. 98.

Limosa rufa. Bar-tailed Godwit. Jen. Brit. Vert. Anim. 202.

Limosa rufa. Bonap. Comp. List, 52.

Bill about four inches long, bent upicards; male about
Jif teen , female seventeen inches long ; tarsus about two inches
and two-twelfths ; bill flesh-coloured , dushy in its terminal
half; feet greyish-blue; toes darker; claws blach, short,
blunt, that of the middle toe without serrature. In winter
the head and neck pale grey, icith small brownish-grey
streaks; a broad band ovei' the eye, the throat, breast, and
other lower jMirts white; feathers of the fore part of the back
and scapulars grey, with a central broivn streak; hind 2)art

BAR-TAILED GODAMT. 261

of hack white ; tail white, with eight dusky bars. In summer
the upper part of the head hlachish-hrovn, streaked with
reddish; band over the eye liyht red; cheeks, throat, and
loioer parts light yellowish-red ; feathers of the fore ptctrt of
the back and scapulars blackish-hroim , mottled tcith reddish-
yellow and light grey ; hind jjart of back ichite, witli yelloxo
spots; tail white y barred tcith brown. Young with the upper
part of the head blackish-brown, streaked with pale brownish-
grey ; band ocer the eye white dotted with brotvn; cheeks and
neck all round light brownish-grey , streaked with grey ; lower
parts white; upper variegated tcith blackish-brown and j^ale
reddish-grey ; hind part of back white, icith dusky spots ; tail
white, barred with dusky.

When seen flyinj]^ at a moderate distance, this bird so
much resembles the Whimbrel, Numacnius Pha?opus, that I
have several times mistaken it for that species. Not only is
the flight similar, but the colours, and especially the white
on the hind part of the back, indicate a close affinity.

IVIale in Winter. — This species is, like the rest, of
rather elegant form, its body being moderately stout ; its
neck long and rather slender ; the head rather small, oblong,
compressed, rounded above, but narrowed and sloping ante-
riorly. The bill is about twice the length of the head,
tapering, higher than broad at the base, but toward the end
rather depressed ; in its whole length slightly curved upwards.
One at first would hardly suspect that the curve is so small ;
but when a line is drawn from the base of the ridge to the
tip, and a line run from it at right angles to the most distant
part of the concavity, the latter line measures only a twelfth
and a half, or onc-eightli of an inch. Both mandibles are
flexible in a considerable degi'ee, covered with soft skin until
near the end, Avhen it becomes dense, laterally grooved
nearly to the points, which are slightly enlarged and obtuse.
The upper mandible has the ridge flattened at the base, then
narrowed for half its length, again flattened, and at the tip
convex ; the lower has the angle long and very narrow, the
dorsal line slightly ascending ; the edges of both are soft,

2r,2 LIMOSA PvUFA.

hlunt, and ^ooved. The inontli is very narioAv, measuring
only four-twelfths and a (jnarter aeross. The palate is flat,
with two rt)us of ]iai)illir on each side of the linear-oblong-
posterior nasal ajicrture. and three anterior rows. The
t(jnp:ue is two inehes and eleven-twelfths loni;-, emarginate
and papillate at the base, fleshy for lialf-an-ineh, then
horny, trigonal, grooved above, tapering to a line point.
The a>sopha;;us is seven and a half inches long, narrow,
having a nearly uniform width of four-tAvelfths ; the provcn-
triculus oblong. The stomach is an elliptical compressed
gizzard, an inch and four-twelfths in length, an inch and
one-twelfth in breadth, with the muscles ratlier large and
distinct ; the epithelium dense, flesh-coloured, and longi-
tudinally rugous. The intestine, forty-two inches long, varies
from three-and-a-half-twelfths to two-twelfths in width ; the
coeca halfan-inch long, a twelfth-and-a-half in breadth, and
two inches from the extremity.

The eyes are smsill, their aperture nuvasuring three-
twelfths across; that of the ear four-and-a-half-twelfths, but
the meatus transverse and narrow ; nostrils basal, direct,
linear, four-and-a-half-twelfths long. The feet are slender,
of moderate length ; the tibia bare for rather more than a
third ; the tarsus with twenty-eight sc\itella. The toes are
short ; the first very small, elevated, w ith eight scutella ; the
second with twenty-two, the third with thirty, the fourth
twenty-six. They are broad beneath and marginate ; the
outer connected with the third by a rather large basal web,
Avhich runs out narrowing to the end of both toes ; the inner
web much smaller. The claws are very small, arched, com-
pressed, at the end convex and obtuse.

The feath(>rs of the head and neck are oblong and
blended ; of tho body rather compact, ovate, and rounded.
The wings when closed reach to the tip of the tail, and an*
long, narrow, and ])ointe(l ; of thirty quills ; the first longest
and very slightly curved, the other ])rimaries rapidly gra-
duated; the secondaries slightly incurved, obliquely rounded,
with a minute tij) ; some of the inner much elongated,
tapering, but rounded. There are seven stiflish tertials^
concealed by the scapulars, which are long. The tail is

nAR-TAILED GODWIT. 263

short, of twelve rounded featliers, almost even, the four
middle featliers bciii^' sli;;htly longer.

The bill is dull fiesli-eoloured, dusky toward the end,
more of the lower mandible being of the former eolour.
The iris is brown. The tarsi and toes are dull greyish-blue ;
the elaws black. The upper part of the head, its sides, and
the neck all round are pale grey, with numerous small
longitudinal brownish-grey streaks. A broad band of wliite
from the bill over the eye. The throat, breast, sides,
abbomen, and lower tail-coverts are white ; as are the lower
wing-coverts, excepting those bordering the wing, which
have a grey central patch. The feathers of the fore part of
the back and the scapulars arc grey, with an oblong brown
central streak ; the rest of the back white, as arc the upj)(>r
tail-coverts, some of which, however, have two or three
dusky bands. The tail-feathers have eight dusky bars, the
intervals and margins white. The primary quills, coverts,
and alular feathers are greyish-black, margined, except a
few of the outer, with white ; the secondary quills are more
grey, the iiincr like the feathers of the back, all margined
with white ; the secondary coverts greyish-brown, with broad
white margins ; the snuiller coverts dusky, margined with
greyish- white.

Length to end of tail 15 inches; extent of wings 30; bill
along the ridge 3\^, along the edge of lower mandible o\^ ;
wing from flexure 8-pj ; tail S-^; bare part of tibia 1; tarsus
2-i\; first toe -j^, its claw -j\; second toe -|4, its claw^;
third toe 1 jV, its claw -p^ ; fourth toe 1^, its claw ^.

Female. — The female resembles the male, but is con-
siderably larger.

Length to end of tail 11 j inches; extent of wings 31 ;
bill along the ridge 4 ; wing from flexure 9^^ ; tail 3 ; bare
part of tibia l-j\ ; tarsus 1-^2^ ; middle toe 1 y\, its claw yV,

Changes of Plumage. — Not having met with this species
in summer, during which season it seems to absent itself
from Britain, I translate the following account of it from
M. Temminck's Manual.

264 LIMOSA RUFA.

Male ix Summkr. — " U])per part of tlie head and occiput
l)lackish-l)ro\v]i, mixed Avith streaks of reddisli-yi^llow ; a
band of the latter colour over the eyes ; lore blackish-brown ;
cheeks and throat of a yellowish-red ; all the lower part of
the body, includin2^ the under tail-coverts, pale yellowish-
red ; upper part of the back and scapulars blackish-brown,
marbled with rcddish-yelloAv and whitish-grey ; lower parts
of the back and rump white, marked with longitudinal
yellowish-red spots ; the tail nunked with brown and white
bars, those of the latter tint irregularly distributed, and dis-
posed more or less longitudinally; quills black from their
tip, the remaining part toward the base is entirely blackish-
brown, but with their inner webs whitish-grey, marbled
with pale brown ; the secondaries grey, with the shafts and
margins Avhite. Bill niiuh recurved, the greater part of its
base yellowish-brown. Length from fourteen inches to six
or seven lines more."

Female in Summer. — "The head and lore as in the
male ; throat white, marked with gicyish-red ; cheeks and
neck very light reddish, with numerous brown streaks, which
become broader, and form small transverse brown and white
bars on the sides of the breast ; the latter and the belly
marbled with white and very pale reddish ; the abdominal
part white ; the lower tail-coverts reddish-white, Avith light
broAvn bars. Length sixteen inches two or three lines."

Habits. — This Godwit arrives in small flocks on the
eastern coasts of the northern and middle divisions of Scot-
land early in September. Considerable numbers may fre-
fjuently be seen in the Bay of Cromarty, and in the estuaries
of the Ythan, South Esk, and Tay. To the north of Aber-
deen they appear to remain but a few weeks. I have also
seen them in the beginning of September on the shores of
the Firth of Forth, when they frequent more especially the
muddy parts at the mouths of streams. At the estuary of
tlie Ksk at Musselburgh, it is not uncommon in September
and October, generally keeping in small flocks of from six to
ten or twelve, most of the individuals being young birds.

IJAK-TAII.ED GOD WIT. 265

I'or souio time after its ariival it is not shy, but whcu
Icediiif;- alluAvs a near ap])r<)acli. I liave known six killed in
one week in September, two of them by a younj^ friend. After
October they become scarcer and more shy ; but individuals
occur until April, when they disa])])ear. Their Hi<;ht is
moderately rapid, lij^ht, somewhat buoyant, and j^reatly re-
sembles tliat of the Curlew, and es])ecially the Whimbrel.
Thev emit a loud shrill whistle, and on risin*;- utter a lower
modulated sound, somewhat like that of the bird just men-
tioned. Walkint,^ for the most part sedately, but sometimes
runnin<>;, they tap and probt' the mud aiul sands in search of
worms and other snudl animals, frequently mingling with
Sandpipers and Ring-Plovers, along with which they often
repose on the sands and neighbouring pastures at high
water.

It has been alleged that the bill of the Limosee is not
recurved Avhen the bird is alive, but bends presently after it
is killed. One day in September, 1840, observing a bird of
this species on the edge of the tide at high water, I walked
slowly toward it until exactly eleven paces distant, when,
after some hesitation, it flew aAvay, but not until I very dis-
tinctly saw^ that the bill was recurved. All the specimens
examined by me soon after death had it equally bent up-
wards. When it begins to dry, however, it curves con-
siderably more than in the natural state, which is also the
case with the bills of the Tringa?, although in the opposite
direction.

As might be expected, it occurs in autumn along the
whole eastern coast of England, and extends to Devonshire
and Cornwall. AMiether it migrates also along the western
coasts of Scotland and England cannot Avell be affirmed,
although Mr. Heysham has recorded the shooting of one
near liowness in October. From its frequenting the shores
of the continent, and occurring in Germany, Switzerland,
and on the shores of the Caspian Sea, its course of migration
had been considered more to the eastward than that of the
IJlack-tailcd Godwit ; but Mr. Thompson notes it as a regular
autumnal visitant in Ireland, where it occasionally remains
until spring.

26G LIMOSA IIUFA.

" The nimihor of Gothvits varii's romaikably in difForent
years, in some beinir scarce, in others abundant. The iirst
that I met ^vith was, when a young shooter, in 18;2J2 ; in
w'hicli year hiri^e flocks appeared on tlie 7th of September,
on tlie short ])asture and the sandy beach at Ilolvwood
rabbit-warren, Belfast Bay, Their tameness surprised me.
Of all birds that I had ever seen they most freely admitted
the ajiproach of the fowler, who had only to walk directly
towards thcni, and choose his distance from which to fire, as
they were fecdini^ or reposini^ on the strand. After a
number were killed from a flock on the i2:round, the re-
mainder, though taking wing on hearing the report, Avould
sometimes pitch again among the dead and wounded before
the ])erpetrator of the deed of blood, having again charged
his gun, could reach the spot to lift them ; when a second
volley would, in addition, lay some of the others low. The
pockets of a shooting-jacket at tliat time usually sufficed to
hold the few birds that might fall to my gun ; but the
niimber of God wits proved too great for them, and, not-
withstanding all that could be done in the way of squeezing
and pressing, the long bills and legs of the poor victims
could not be concealed, but kept dangling outside, thus
serving as an announcement to the shooters in the village,
when I returned homeward, of the easy prey that awaited
tliem. At a different part of the shore, on the same day,
thirty-one Godwits were killed by two jxrsons shooting in
company ; a number which would probably have been
doubled had one of the guns not missed Are at the best shot
offered during the day. This was at ' the great flock of
from 200 to ;300,' Avhich from a distance of four or five
yards, with the gun resting on a ditch-bank, was sought to
be fired at ; the birds were so close together, that less than
thirty could hardly have fallen had the gun been discharged.
This being on a Saturday, the report of the number of these
birds seen had time to spread widely before Monday morning,
when the field — or rather shore — was taken by so many
shooters, that the execution done (m the poor Godwits was
very great ; about twenty or thirty birds were killed by
single guns. For several days they continued in consider-

BAIl-TAILED GODWIT. 267

able numbers; but (jxpericncc tcacliiut;' ibcm like otbcr
Ijiptuls, tlicy bcciniu! gradually Kss easy of approach. Tlicy
wen; in very good coiulition, and sold at this time in Hfllast
at sixpence a couple. Godwits remained later than usual in
the bav that season, aiul occasionally fell to my gun until
the 24th ot" October. At the beginning of September, Avhen
these birds appeared in su'h numbers in Belfast Bay, they
were verv abundant in Larue Lough, the next inlet of the
sea northward — and of a similar oozy nature — on the Antrim
coast."

The numbers that a])p(>ar in spring along the east coast
of Britain are much less than those of autumn, and the birds
do not seem to attract much attention at that season. Lidi-
viduals are sometimes seen so late as the middle of iNLiy, by
which time they have assumed their sunnner clothing.

It does not appear that this species breeds in any part of
Britain. On their arrival, however, the young are in their
first plumage, which I am enabled to describe from two
recent specimens.

Young. — Bill dull flesh-coloured, with the ridge dusky,
and the terminal half black. Lis dusky ; tibia and tarsus
dull greyish-blue ; toes almost black, as are the claws. The
upper part of the head is blackish-brown, streaked with pale
brownish-grey ; over the eyes a broad band of white minutely
streaked Avitli brown. The sides of the head and the neck
all round, Avitli a portion of the breast and sides of the body,
pale brownish-grey, streaked with dark grey ; the fore-neck,
with low markings, and tinged with cream-colour. The
rest of the lower parts white ; the axillars, some of the
feathers of the sides, and the lower tail-coverts barred or
spotted with blackish-grey. The lower marginal wing-coverts
are white, with a blackish-grey spot; the larger coverts are
white, variously marked with pale grey. The feathers of
the lower hind-neck, fore part of the back, and scapulars are
blackish-brown, margined with pale greyish-red, the mar-
uinal bands of the lar<;e feathers indented. The middle and
hind part of the back white, each feather spotted or broadly
barred with gTcyish-black ; the upper tail-coverts with four

2GS LIMOSA RUFA.

bars. The tail is white, tinged witli red toward the end,
each feather Avith eight dusky bars. The smaller wiiig-
coverts are blackish-brown, broadly margined Avith pale
broA\'nish-grey ; the alular feathers and primary coverts
broAvnish-black, margined Avith Avhite ; the secondary coAcrts
blackish-gi'ey, margined AA"ith yelloAvish-Avhite ; the primary
(jiiills greyish-black, Avith Avhite shafts and margined AAith
Avhite, the inner Aveb paler, and dotted or marbled Avith
Avhite ; the secondaries liaA'e the outer AAcb darker, a central
Avhite streak, and Avhite margins ; the inner and their coA'erts
like the scapulars, Avith indented marginal spots. The fol-
loAA-ing are the dimensions of the tAvo individuals : —

Length 16|^ inches; extent of Avings 29^; bill along the
ridge Sj ; Aving from flexure 85-; tail 2^2 ; tarsus S^yj
middle toe 1-j^, its claw ^.

Length 16f ; extent of wings 30 ; bill along the ridge
3-j^ ; Aving from flexure 9 ; tail S-J^ ; tarsus 2-^ ; middle toe
l-i2^, its chiAv -^.

The first of these I found to be a male. Its gizzard
contained a great (quantity of small stones, mud, and frag-
ments of shells, but no animal substances. The account of
its digestive organ I have transferred to the article in Avhich
the adult male is described.

2G'J

LIMOSA iEGOCEPHALA. THE BLACK-TAILED
GOD WIT.

Scolopax Liniosa. Liiin. Syat. Nat. I. 24.5. Wiiitor.

Scopolax ^I'^gDcuphalii. Linn. Sy.st. Xat. I. 246. SuniiucT.

Scopolax Limosa Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 719. Winter.

Scopolax _T];j;ocophala. Linn. Syst. Xat. II. 719. Summer.

Red Godwit. Mout. Oriiith. Diet. Summer.

Jadreka Snipe. Mont. Oru. Diet, and Supplt. Winter.

Barge a queue noire. Limosa melanura. Temm. Man. d'Orn. II. 664.

Limosa ^Egoccphala. Black-tailed God\vit. Flem. Brit. Anira. 107.

Black-tailed Godwit. Limosa melanura. Selb. Illustr. II. 94.

Limosa melanura. Black-tailed Godwit. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 203.

Limosa iEgocephala. Bonap. Comp. List. 52.

Tail slightly emarginate ; hill about three and a half
inches long, straight ; tarsus about two inches and three-
quarters long ; bill orange, dusky at the end; feet broivnish-
black / claws slender, rather pointed, that of the middle toe
serrated ; tail black, ichite at the base ; icings icith a con-
spicuous white band. In winter the upper parts greyish-
hroion, streaked with dusky ; fore part of neck, breast, and
sides, pale grey ; middle of breast, abdomen, base of quills,
secondary coverts, and tail feathers white. In summer the
neck, breast, and sides bright red, dotted and barred with
dusky ; fore part of the back and scapulars black, variegated
with light red. Young xoith the feathers of the ujjper parts
blackish-brown, margined with light red ; the neck j^ale red-
dish-grey.

The Black-tailed Godwit is rather inferior in bulk to the
Bar-tailed, but has the bill and legs much longer.

270 LIMOSA .EGOCEPHALA.

Male in Wintkr. — The body is moderately stout, the
neck long and slrndcr, the head rather small, oblong, com-
pressed, rounded above, narrowed and slojnng anteriorly.
The bill is more than twice tlie length of the head, tapering,
hiirher tlian broad at the base, toward the end rather dc-
pressed, almost quite straight in its Avhole length ; both
mandibles flexible, covered with soft skin until near the end,
laterallv grooved nearly to the points, which arc slightly en-
larged and obtuse. The upper mandible has the ridge con-
vex in its whole length, unless at the tip, where it is flat-
tened ; the lower has the angle long and very narrow ; the
edges of both are soft, blunt, and grooved.

The nostrils are linear, four-twelfths long, basal, in the
fore part of the short bare sinus. The eyes are small, their
aperture measuring three-twelfths across; that of the ear
four-twelfths. The legs are long and very slender ; the
tibia bare for more than a third, and scutellate before and
behind ; the tarsus with thirty-eight scutella. The toes are
of moderate length, slender, marginate, flattened beneath ;
the flrst very small and elevated, with ten scutella ; the
second with twenty-eight, the third forty, the fourth thirty-
eight ; the inner web extremely small, the outer moderate,
but running out narrowing to the end of botli toes. The
claws are rather long, slender, little arched, compressed ;
the inner thin edge of that of the third toe with five
serratures.

The feathers of the head and neck are oblong aud blended ;
of the bodv rather compact, ovate, and rounded. The wings,
when closed, reach nearly to the tip of the tail, and are long,
narrow, and pointed, of thirty (piills ; the flrst longest, and
8li<'htly curved, the other primaries rapidly decreasing ; the
secondaries slightly incurved, obliquely rounded ; some of
the inner much elongated and tap(>ring. The tail is short,
almost even, of twelve rounded feathers, of which the lateral
are nearlv two-twelfths longer.

The bill is orange-yellow for two-thirds of its length, the
remaining part black. The iris is brown. The feet are
tn-evish-blaek, the claws black. The head, and neck all
round, are pale brownish-grey, streaked with greyish-brown ;

BLACK. TAILED GOD WIT. 271

the throat, a streak over tlie eye, hrcast, sides, abdomen, and
U)\vor tail-coverts white, as are the lower wing-coverts, ex-
cepting those bordering the wing, whidi have a grey central
patch. Tlie feathers of" the fore part of the back, and the
scapulars, are brownish-grey, darker in the middle ; those on
the hind part of the back darker, passing into blackish-
brown ; the upper tail-coverts white, tipped with black ; the
tail black, at the l)ase white, the latter colour occupying
rather more than a third of the middle feathers, and two-
thirds of the outer ; most of the feathers also tipped with
white. The wing-coverts, and inner secondaries, are greyish-
brown, with paler margins ; the quills brownish-black,
slightly tipped with white. A broad band of white extends
across the wing, commencing on the fourth primary, extend-
ing, larger, as far as the inner secondaries, and including the
ends of the secondary coverts.

I^ength to end of tail 1() inches; bill along the ridge
4 inches, along the edge of lower mandible o\^ ; wing from
flexure 8} ; tail o| ; bare part of tibia 1-j^ ; tarsus 2-f-:y ; hind
toe -j^, its claw yV ; second toe IjV, its claw-j^; third toe
l-pr, its claw -fj-, fourth toe l-p^, its claw -j\.

Female. — The female resembles the male, but is con-
siderably larger.

Length to end of tail 17f inches ; bill along the ridge
4-j^ ; w ing from flexure 9^ ; tail 3-^ ; bare part of tibia
l-p^ ; tarsus S^ ; middle toe 1-j^, its claw -^.

Male in vSimmer. — The iipper part of the head is longi-
tudinally streaked with brown and light red, the margins of
the feathers being of the latter colour ; a reddish-white band
from the bill over the eye; the loral band brown ; the cheeks
pale red, the throat white ; neck all round light red, with
minute l)r()wn specks; its lower part and the sides of the
body light red, with transverse curved bands of brownish-
black, tliere being several, generally four, of these bands on
each feather ; the middle of the breast, abdomen, and lower
tail-coverts, white ; the former and latter w ith some dusky
bands. The feathers of the fore part of the back and the

272 LIMOSA .EGOCEPIIALA.

scapulars black, tipped and marginally barred or spotted with
liglit red ; the wings, tail, and its coverts as in winter.

Female in Summer. — Similar to tlie male.

Habits. — The Black-tailed Godwit, which is rather in-
aptly named, inasmuch as its tail lias as much white as black,
is of much less freqiient occurrence in England than the Bar-
tailed, and apparently still rarer in Scotland, although, as
Mr. Selby states that it is not unfrequcntly seen on the
coasts of Northimibcrlaud and other northern districts, it is
very probably not extremely uncommon on the east coast of
the southern and middle divisions of that country. It is
stated in the Statistical Account, to be one of the birds that
frequent the Montrose Basin, and to have been shot at Logic
and Kiunordy in the same county. In Aberdeenshire one
individual, at least, has been shot. The Rev. 'Slv. Smith,
Monquhither, writes me : — " In the end of July, 1826, — an
unusually hot year, by the way — I saw a very fine specimen
of the Black-tailed Godwit shot, as it rose from among the
reeds surrounding the Loch of Strathbeg. Instead of being
preserved, it was cooked, and proved to be excellent eating."
In Mr. Thompson's Natural History of Ireland, it is said to
" frequent the coast in autumn and winter — more especially
at the former season — in very limited numbers." Its habits
have not apparently been subjected to very close scrutiny ; but
it is easy to say, and probable enough, that they resemble those
of the other species. " The food of the Black-tailed Godwit,"
Mr. Selby says, " consists of insects and worms, obtained by
probing the mud and soft sand with its long bill ; and it is
then frequently seen wading tolerably deep in the water,
immersing the head at intervals, and searching the dejjosit
beneath. This hal)it accounts for the great development of
that gland, which aj)pears to secrete a fluid for lubricating
and protecting the eyes of such birds as are accustomed to
have the head frequently sub-nu'rgcHl ; and it accordingly
exists to the greatest extent in the order Natatores, or true
Water Birds." I a])preh<>nd, however, that this cannot be
the use of the gland in question, because its duct passes into

BLACK-TAILED GODWIT. 273

tlie luisal cavity, so that its secretion has no access to the
eyes. This species is said to nestle sometimes in the fens of
the eastern districts of En;j;hiiid, hiyin<; four lar<^e c<r<rs of a
lij^lit oHve tint, spotted with hrown. On the continent it
makes its appearance at the periods of its autumnal and
vernal migrations, and is especially abundant in Holland.

Young. — According to M. Temminck, the young, pre-
viously to their first moult, have a " hand from the
upper mandible to the eye, the throat, base of tlie tail-
feathers, upper part of the quills, the belly, and abdomen
pure white ; the feathers of the upper part of the head
brown, bordered with light red ; the neck and breast of a
light greyish-red ; the feathers of the back and the scapulars
blackish, surrounded by a light red band ; the wing-coverts
grey, bordered and terminated by a large reddish-white
space ; the tip of the tail-feathers bordered with white ; the
point of the bill brown.

274

MACRORHAMPHUS. LOXGBEAK.

The bird named by Gmelin Scolopax grisea and Scolopax
Novfcboraccnsis, tlie Red-broasted Snipe and Brown Snipe
of English ornithologists, has been referred by many reeent
authors to the restricted genus Scolopax, or Snipe, solely on
account of the bill being scrobiculatcd toward the end,
although this character is not ])eculiar to the Snipes, but
presents itself, though in a less degree, in the Sandpipers
and several other genera. Its feet, however, resemble those
of Liniosa and Totanus, the toes being shorter than in the
Snipes, and the outer two connected at the base by a pretty
large membrane. Its plumage, also, differs from that of the
Snipes, and resembles, in coloxiring and in its periodical
changes, that of the Godwits ; while its habits are similar to
those of the Tringinec generally. Dr. Leach, taking these
differences into consideration, and viewing the bird as inter-
mediate between the Scolopaces and Limosae, referred it to a
separate genus, which he named Maci-oraynjihus ; and Avhich
may be thus characterized.

Only one species is known. It has the body ovate and
compact ; the neck rather short ; the head rather small,
convex above, and narrowed in front. Bill very long,
straight, subulate, compressed for more than half its length,
then depressed; both mandibles grooved to near the end,
where it is a little enlarged, and terminating in a narrow
but blunt point. Digestive organs as in the genus Tringa.

Nostrils basal, sub-marginal, linear, pervious. Eyes of
moderate size ; as are the apertures of the ears. Legs of
moderate lengtli, slender ; tibia bare for a tliird of its length ;
tarsus compressed, scutellate before and behind ; hind toe
very small and slender ; anterior toes of moderate lengtli,
the outer two connected by a web nearly reaching to the
second joint of the outer, and margining both to the end.

Plumage soft and blended, but firm. AVings long, narrow,
pointed ; the inner secondaries much elongated. Tail rather
short, nearly even.

275

MACllORIIAMPHUS GRTSEUS. THE GREY
LONG-BEAK.

UlCD-liRKASTliU .SNU'li. liKOWN SNII'K. GKKY .SNII'K.

Siolopax grisea. Gmcl. Syst. Nat. I. 658.

Scolopax grisea. Lath. Ind. Oniitli. II. 724.

Sciilopa.v Xova^horacensis. Ginul, Sj'st. Nat. I. 658.

Scolopax Novxboraceiisis. Lath. lud. Ornith. II. 723.

Brown Snipe. Mont. Ornith. Diet.

IJeeassiiie Ponetiiee. Seuh>pa.K grisea. Temm. Man. d'Oniith. II. 679.

Brown Long-beoli. Maeroramphus gri.seus. Selby, lUustr. vol. II. p. 103.

Seolopax grisea. Jen. Brit. Vert. Aniui. 207.

Red-hreasted Snipe. Seolopa.x Xoveboraeensis. Aiidub. Ornith. Biogr,

III. 474.
Maeroramphus giiseus. Bonap. Comp. List, 52.

BUI tic'icc the h'lKjtJt of tJic Ju'dd ; tall nritrli/ even, of
twelve feathers; outer and middle toes connected hi/ a, basal
weh. In winter, the plumage of the upper part of the head
and hind-neck hrowHlsh-[ireij ; the fore part of the hack of the
same colour, spotted with dusky; tlie ruinj) and tall u-hlte,
transversely barred with blackish-hrown ; the h)U'er parts
white; the sides and lower tail-coverts barred with dusky.
In sununer, the upper parts variegated ivith brownish-black
and light reddish ■ y ello w ; the lower light yellowish-red, more
or less spotted and barred witJi dusky.

]Male. — The Grey Snipe, Mhich is, properly speaking, a
native of America, ranks in Britain merely as an accidental
straggler. In form and proportions it is not nnlike the
Common Snipe and several other species, from Avhich in
these respects it differs, however, in having the middle and
outer toes connected hy a basal web extending as far as the

276 MACRORHAMPIIUS GRISEUS.

second joint of the latter, these toes being in other Snipes
free. Such a (liffereiuc miiiht not of itself he viewed as of
nmch importance, and its occurrence in other genera has not
heen considered as sufficient to render a separation of species
necessary. Thus C'haradrius Iliaticula of pAirope differs
from C'h. seniipahuatus of Anu-rica chieHy in this very cir-
cumstance ; and yet the persons who separate the Grey
Snipe from the Brown Snipe generically place these Plovers
in the same genus, whatever name they give to it. But the
habits are quite different, and indicate an affinity to the
Tringina?.

This species is somewhat larger than the Common Snipe.
Its body is ovate and compact ; its neck rather short ; its
head rather small, oblong, convex above, and narrowed in
front. The bill is twice the length of the head, straight,
subulate, compressed for more than half its length, depressed
toward the end ; the sides of both mandibles grooved, the
ends of both a little enlarged, and terminating in a narrow
but blunt point. The mouth is very narrow, the gape-line
straight ; the eyes of moderate size, as are the apertures of
the ears ; the nostrils small, linear, basal ; the nasal groove
narrow.

The roof of the mouth is flat, with three longitudinal
series of papillae ; the lower mandible deeply concave ; the
tongue marginate and papillate at the base, slendei', tapering
to a point, two inches and a quarter in length. The oeso-
phagus is three inches and three quarters long, a quarter of
an inch in diameter, without dilatation. The proventriculus
oblong, four-twelfths across, Avith cylindrical glandules. The
stomach is an oblong gizzard, an inch in length, and eight-
twelfths in breadth ; its lateral muscles strong, the inferior
distinct, the tendons large ; the epithelium dense, tough,
longitudinally rugous, and of a dark red colour. The intes-
tine, Avhich is twenty inches and a half in length, is of con-
sideral)]e widtli, its diameter being a quarter of an inch at
the upper ])art. Tlie ca^ca are an inch and three quarters
long, one-twelftli in diameter at the connnencement, two-
twelfths toward the end. Tlie digestive organs are thus, in
all respects, similar to those of tlie otlier Snipes.

GREY LONG-BEAK. 277

The logs are of UKKlerate length and slender ; the tibia
bare for eight-twelfths ; the tarsus moderate, compressed,
covered with numerous scutella before and behind, with sub-
hexagonal seales on the sides. The hind toe is very small
and slender, with six scutella, and a small compressed claw
about half its lengtli ; the middle toe with its claw about
the same length as the tarsus, and connected with the outer
toe, -which is very slightly longer than the inner, by a wel)
nearly reaching to the second joint of the outer toe, and
running along the edges of both to the end. The claws are
small, slightly arched, slender, compressed, acute.

The plumage is soft and blended, but firm. The wings
long, narrow, and pointed ; the primaries tapering to an
obtuse point, the first longest, the rest rapidly diminishing ;
the secondaries short, incurvate, obliquely terminated, the
inner web extending beyond the outer ; the inner elongated,
one of them reaching to half-an-inch of the tip of the longest
primary. Tail rather short, nearly even, of twelve rounded
feathers.

The bill is dusky, tinged with green ; the iris brown ;
the feet yellowish-green. The upper part of the head and
the hind-neck are brownish-grey, with a dusky streak on
each feather. The fore part of the back, scapulars, wing-
coverts, and inner secondaries brownish-grey, the centre of
each feather dusky ; the hind part of the back and the tail
white, transversely banded with dark greyish-brown. Alula,
primary coverts, and primary quills blackish-brown ; the
shaft of the first primary and the terminal margins of the
inner five Avhite ; the secondaries and their coverts brownish-
grey, margined and tipped with white. Over the eye, from
the bill, is a broad streak of white ; the loral space duskv ;
the cheeks and lower part of the fore-neck gi'ey, streaked
with dusky ; the throat, sides, axillars, and lower tail-coverts
white, with transverse dark grey bands ; the lower wang-
coverts dark grey, with the centre and margins white ; the
middle of the breast and the abdomen wliite.

Length to end of tail 10^ inches ; extent of wings 18 ;
wing from flexure OyV; tail 2^; bill along the ridge 2^,
along the edge of lower mandible 2-^; tarsus l-f^; first

278 MACRORHAMPHUS GRISEUS.

toe -j^, its claw -^; second too ^, its claw -^ ; thiid toe 1,
its claw -j3j ; fourth toe \^, its claw -^.

Female. — The female is similar to the male, hut some-
what larger.

Len<i;th to end of tail 10| inches; wing from flexure 6 ;
tail 2^ ; hill ~j ; tarsus 1 -^^•, middle toe and claw l-j3^.

ITahits. — Of tlie hahits of this species, considered as a
Ihitish hird, nothing is known. Montagu first recorded its
occurrence in England, having obtained a male which was
shot in the beginning of October on the coast of Devonshire.
Another specimen has since been killed in the same county ;
a third near Carlisle, in 1835; a fourth at Yamiouth, in
1836 ; and, together with these, two more arc mentioned by
Mr. Yarrell as having been obtained at Norfolk in 1840. I
am not aware of its having been seen in Scotland, and Mr.
Thompson docs not include it among the birds of Ireland.
Greenland and Sweden are said to be inhabited by it, and it
is very abundant in North America. Mr. Audubon, after
stating that he met with it in large flocks at the mouths of
the ^lississippi, in April, 1837, and all along to Galveston
Bay, gives the following account of its habits : —

" Although much more abundant along the coast and in
its vicinity, the Eed-breasted Snipe is not uncommon in
many parts of the interior, especially in autumn ; and I have
procured many individuals along the nuuldy margins of
lakes, more than three hundred miles in a direct line from
the sea. Its migratory movements are performed with \ui-
common celerity, as many are observed along the coast of
New Jersey in April, and afterwards on the borders of the
Arctic Sea, in time to rear young, and return to our eastern
and middle districts before the end of August.

" This bird exhibits at times a manner of feeding which
a])])eared to me singular, and which I rejieatedly Mitnessed
while at Grande Terre, in Louisiana. While watching their
manner of walking and wading along sand-bars and muddy
flats, I saw that as long as the water was not deeper than
the length of their bills, they probed the ground beneath

GREY LONG-BEAK. 279

tliciu precisely in the manner of" the Anieiiean Snipe, Sco-
l()j)ux Wilsoni ; but Avheu the water readied tlicir ])(j(lics,
they iniiuersed the head and a portion of the neck, and
remained thus sufficiently long to satisfy me that, while in
this position, they probed several spots before raisin^' their
heads to breathe. On such grounds as are yet soft, although
not covered with water, they bore holes as deep as the soil
will admit, and this with surjjrising rapidity, occupying but
a few moments in one spot, and probing as they advance. I
have watched some dozens at this work for half-an-hour at a
time, when I was completely concealed from their view.
Godwits, which are also borers, probe the mud or moist
earth often in an oblique direction ; whilst the Woodcock,
the Common Snipe, and the present species thrust in their
bills j)erpendicularly. The latter bird also seizes many
sorts of insects, and at times small fry, as well as the
seeds of plants that have dropped into the water. Dr.
Richardson informs us that ' individuals killed on the
SaskatcheAvan plains had the crops filled with leeches and
fragments of coleoptera.'

" The flight of this bird is rapid, strong, and remarkably
well-sustained. When rising in large numbers, which they
usually do simultaneously, they crowd together, arc apt to
launch upwards in the air for a while, and after performing
several evolutions in contrary directions, glide towards the
ground, and Avend their way close to it, until, finding a suit-
able place, they alight in a very compact body, and stand for
a moment. Sometimes, as if alarmed, they recommence their
meandering flight, and after a while return to the same spot,
alighting in the same manner. Then is the time when the
gunner may carry havoc amongst them ; but in two or three
minutes they separate and search for food, when you must
either put them up to have a good shot, or wait the arrival
of another flock at the same place, which often happens, for
these birds seldom suffer any of their species to pass without
sending them a note of invitation. It is not at all unconunon
to shoot twenty or thirty of them at once. I have been
present when 127 were killed by discharging three barrels,
and have heard of many dozens being procured at a shot.

280 MACRORHAMPHUS GRISEUS.

^^ hen "wounded and brought to the 'water, tlioy try in vain
to dive ; and on reaching the nearest part of the shore, they
usually run a fcAv steps and squat among the grass, -when
it becomes difficult to find them. Those which have
escaped unhurt often remain looking upon their dead
companions, sometimes waiting until shot at a second time.
When they are fat they afford good eating, but their flesh
is at no time so savoury as that of the common American
Snipe.

" The cry of this species when on wing is a single and
rather mellow v:eet. When on the ground I have heard
tliem emit a continued guttural rolling sound, such as is on
certain occasions given out by the species just mentioned.
Their call-note resembles the soft and pleasing somid of a
whistle ; but I have never heard them emit it while travelling.
Nothing is known respecting their breeding, and yet there
can be little doubt that many of them must rear young
within the limits of the Union."

Adult ix Summer. — The bill, eyes, and feet as in
winter. The upper parts are brownish-black, varied with
light brownish-red, the feathers being margined or spotted,
tlie scapulars and inner secondaries obliqiudy barred with
the latter colour. The hind part of the back and the tail
are reddish-white, barred with dusky. The wing-coverts
are greyish-brown, darker in the centre, the larger barred or
spotted with yellowish-red ; the quills as in winter, some of
the secondaries barred with white. A reddish-white band
over the eye, loral space dusky ; lower parts light yellowish-
red, with streaks of dusky on the neck, spots on the breast,
and bars on the sides and loAver tail-coverts.

Remarks. — For opportunities of examining this species
I am indebted to Mr. Audubon, who, besides allowing me
the use of his dried specimens, presented me with some
preserved in spirits.

281

PHALAROPINJE.

rHALAROPES AND ALLIED SPECIES.

Thk next two genera have by some ornithologists been
formed into a family, Phalaropidse, and placed in connexion
with the Coots. Their affinities, however, are with the
Tringina:> and Totaninir, their general fonn being similar,
and their digestive organs the same. Their lobed toes and
natatorial habits have given rise to this misapprehension.
In accordance with their habits, they have the tarsi much
compressed and the plumage dense. AVhether they ought
to form a separate family or not, their proper place is
lietween the Tringinte, which one of the genera resembles in
its bill, and the Totatinse, to which the other genus approxi-
mates in the form of that organ. They are small or diminu-
tive birds, remarkable for being often met at a gi-eat distance
from land, where they alight among floating sea-weed, and,
it would appear, for their extreme but ill-placed confidence
in man, at least during their residence on fresh-water.

SYNOPSIS OF TEE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES.

GENUS I. PHALAROPUS.

Bill rather longer than the head, almost straight, slender,
with the ridge flattened, the nasal groove extending to two-
thirds, the breadth considerably enlarged toward the end,
the tip obtuse. Nostrils basal, oblong, with an elevated

282 PIIALAROPIN^. PHALAROPES, &c.

margin. Legs sliort, extremely slendtT ; tarsus much com-
pressed, anteriorly scutellatc ; first toe diminutive ; anterior
toes of moderate length, connected at the base bv webs, and
laterally margined with a lt)bed membrane Wings long,
pointed ; tail sliort, rounded.

1. Fhalarupus lohatus. Grey FJialaropc. In winter, the
back pale blue ; the occiput and a line down the back of the
neck gi-eyish-black ; the lower parts, forehead, and cheeks
white. In summer, the upper parts dark brown, the feathers
edged with yellowish-red ; the lower parts light red.

GEM'S II. LOIUPES. LOHE-FOOT.

Bill rather longer than the head, straight or very slightly
bent upwards, very slender, depressed, tapering, the ridge
convex, flattened at the base, the nasal groove extending
nearly to the end, the tip slender and pointed. Nostrils
basal, linear. Legs of moderate length, slender; tarsus
much compressed, thin-edged anteriorly ; first toe diminu-
tive ; anterior toes of moderate length, connected at the base
by webs, of which the outer is longer, and laterally margined
with a lobed and pectinated membrane. Wings long,
pointed ; tail rather short, much rounded.

L Lubijics hijjjerhoreus. lied -necked Lohe-foot. In winter,
the back greyish-black, streaked with white ; upper part of
the head, a narrow band along the hind-neck, and a band
below the eyes blarkish-gi-ey ; lower parts Avhite. In summer,
the upper parts blackish-gi-ey, the feathers edged Avith light
red ; of which colour are the sides and fore part of the neck ;
sides grey, Avith a white band ', the rest of the lower parts
■\vliile.

283

PHALAROPUS. PIIALAROPE.

The only species of tins <j,cnus known to mc is a small
bird about the size of the Purple Sandpiper, and which at
first sight might be taken for a Trin<^a, although its feet
differ so much as to refer it to a sejiarate genus. The body
is rather sl(>nder ; the neck of moderate length ; the head
small, compressed, with the forehead elevated and rounded.

Bill rather longer than th(> head, almost straight, slender,
sub-cylindrical ; upjjer mandible with the dorsal line straight,
the ridge flattened, the nasal groove extending to two-thirds,
the breadth considerably enlarged toward the end, the tip
obtuse ; lower mandible with the angle long and extremely
narrow, the sides erect and grooved, the tip rather acute.

Eyes rather small ; nostrils basal, oblong, with an elevated
margin ; aperture of ear roundish, and of moderate size.
Feet short, extremely slender ; tibia bare to a considerable
extent ; tarsus short, much compressed, anteriorly scutellate,
posteriorly thin-edged ; the first toe diminutive ; the anterior
toes of moderate length, the second slightly shorter than the
fourth, which is not much exceeded by the third ; the three
connected at the base by webs, and laterally margined with
a lobed membrane. Claws very small, arched, compressed,
rather sharp.

Plumage full, soft, blended ; the feathers oblong, and
much curved. Wings long, pointed, the first and second
quills longest ; secondaries fifteen, rather short, incurved,
the inner very long and tapering. Tail short or of moderate
length, rounded, of twelve feathers.

The dense plumage, imper\ious to water, and the ex-
panded margins of the toes, indicate an affinity to the
aquatic birds. Phalaropus may, in fact, be said to be a
Tringa adapted for swimming. Another genus of small
birds, having their toes similarly webbed and lobed, seems
to approach more to the Totaninic than the Tringina:', they
being of a more slender form, with the bill much attenuated.

284

PHALAROPUS LOBATUS. THE GREY
PHAL.UiOPE.

IIED riL\LAUOPE. GRKY PILVLAKOPE. COOT-FOOT.

Tringa lobata. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 249. Winter.

Phalaropus lobatus. Lath. Ind. Orn IL 776. Winter.

Tringa fulicaria. Linn. Syst. Xat. I. 249. Summer.

Phalaropus glacialis. Lath. Lid. Orn. IL 776.

Grey Phalarope. Mont. Orn. Diet, and Supplt.

Phalarope platvrinque. Phalaropus platNTinchus. Temm. Man. d'Orn.

IL 712.
Phalaropus lobatus. Grey Phalarope. Flcm. Brit. Anim. 100.
Grey Phalarope. Phalaropus lobatus. Selb. lUustr. II. 162.
Phalaropus lobatus. Grey Phalarope. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 21o.
Phalaropus fulicarius. Bonap. Comp. List, 54.

In winter the back j'O-l^ blue; the occiput and a line doicn
the back of the neck greyish-black ; the forehead, sides of the
head, neck, and lower parts white. In summer the upper
parts dark brown; the feathers edged with yellowish-red; the
lower parts light red.

This beautiful bird is so seldom met with that recent
specimens cannot be procured by the ornithologist, whenever
he -wishes to describe it. The only individual that camo
unmutilated into my hands was killed in the beginning of
winter, and, being a male, has supplied the following
notice : —

Male in "Winter. — About the size of the Purple Sand-
piper, Avitli the body moderately full, the neck rather long,
tlie head small, compressed, and rounded above. Tlie bill is

GREY PHALAROPE. 285

rather longer tliaii the head, ahnost straight, heing very
slightly recurved, suh-cylindrical, a little larger at the base,
obtuse ; the up])er niaiulihle dilated near the end, and having
its tip sliglitly detlinatc, while that of the lower is obtusely
pointed ; both mandibles laterally gTOOved, the upper having
its ridge flattened. The nostrils are basal, lateral, oblong,
small, with a rather i)rominent margin. The eyes are rather
small, with both eyelids ft>athered. The feet are rather
short and slender ; the tibia bare below ; the tarsus com-
pressed, having a projecting margin before and another
behind, both scutellate. The hind toe is very small, with a
membranous margin ; the fore toes are joined at the base by
membranes, and margined on each side with rounded lobes,
each of which corresponds to an articulation. The claws are
snuill, arched, compressed ; that of the second toe is merely
a minute blunt knob.

The plumage is close and blended on the head, neck, and
especially the lower parts. On the back the feathers are
distinct, but Aveak. The wings are long, narrow, and
pointed, with twenty-five quills; the second primary longest,
but the first scarcely shorter ; the secondaries are oblique,
excepting the inner, which are very long and pointed. The
tail is small, much rounded, of twelve delicate, acute
feathers.

The bill is black ; the iris dusky ; the feet pale brown,
the lobes of the membranc^s grey, dark tOAvard the end ; the
claws black. The forehead, sides of the head, neck, and
lower parts are pure white. The occiput and a broad line
down the back of the neck are greyish-black, and there are
some dusky spots beneath the eye. The general colour of
the back is a fine pale purplish-blue ; the wing-coverts
blackish, as are the primary quills, and some of the very
elongated and pointed inner secondaries. The shafts of the
quills, and tlie margins and tips of the secondary coverts,
and the tips of tlic primary coverts, are white. The middle
tail-feathers are deep broAvn, margined with white, the lateral
shaded into ash-grey.

Length to end of tail 8^ inches ; extent of wings lof ;
bill along the ridge \^, along the edge of lower mandible 1 ;

286 rilALAROPUS LOBATUS.

wing from flcxiiro 5 ; tail ;2-j^; tarsus -j4 : middle toe 9 and
a half-twelfth, its claw -^.

Female in Winter. — The female is said to be similar
to the male ; but I have not exauiined a specimen known
to be such.

Male in Summer. — At this season the bird has a very
different appearance, it having undergone a change of
plimiage, and assumed a red colour. As it does not occur
with us in summer, I have taken my description from an
arctic specimen. The bill is yellow, with the point dusky :
the feet gi-eyish-blue. The upper part of the head is black ;
the fore part of the back, the scapulars, and inner secon-
daiies black, margined Mitli light red; the wing-coverts
greyish-black, tipped with white; the quills greyish-black.
The basal part of the outer web of the primaries, and the
tops of the primary and secondary coverts, being white, a
band of that colour is conspicuous on the extended wing.
The upper tail-coverts are partly dusky brown, partly light
red ; the rump Avhite, with dusky streaks ; the tail deep
gi-ey, dusky toward the end. The forehead is dusky ash-
grev ; the sides of the head white ; the fore-neck, breast,
abdomen, and lower tail-coverts light red.

Length to end of tail 8 ; wing from flexure 5 ; tail
g-jSy ; bill along the ridge -L^ ; bare part of tibia -^t; tarsus
If ; third toe if, its claw -fj.

Female in Simmer. — The female resembles the male, but
has the lower parts tinged with grey, and of a paler red.

Haiuts. — The Grey Phalarope has seldom been seen
alive in Britain by any person capable of describing its
habits. Montagu states that he once met with one " swim-
ming in a small pool of water left by the tide on the Sussex
coast. It was continually dipping its bill into the water, as
if feeding on some insects, and so intent as to suffer us to
approach within a few yards. It never attempted to dive,
and when disturbed flew only a small distance, very like tlu^

GREY PIIALAROPE. 287

Piirro." It is cliicHy to the arctic navigators that avc are
indebted for our knowledge of the liabits of this species,
"vvliich in sunnner extends as far northward as Melville
I'eninsula, and is said also to he ahundant in the eastern
parts of the north of Europe. Although it searches the
shores of the sea, lakes, and rivers in the manner of Trin<;as,
it is frequently seen at a great distance from land, -walking
on masses of floating sea-weeds, or swimming in tlu' oix-u
ocean. With reference to this part of their economy, M.
Temminck remarks : — " I do not see how birds having man-
ners and forms so dissimilar could be associated with the
Tringir and Totani." In these res])ects, however, it is
obvious they are precisely analogous to the Dippers, which,
although very closely allied to the Thrushes, are essentially
aquatic. The terrestrial Corncrake and the aquatic Water-
hen afford a similar example of affinity. ^Nlr. Aud\ibon, who
met with the Grey Phalarope on the Ohio in the end of
antumn, states that a large flock, of which he was in pursuit,
" swam beautifully, played about, picked up substances
floating on the water, now dispersed, and again came close
together, initil at length coming opposite to a small sand-bar
stretching out from the shore to the distance of a few yards,
they directed their course towards it, and waded out. When
just landing, they were so close to each other that I could
not withstand the temptation, and so levelled my gun, pulled
both triggers, and saw that I had made considerable havoc
among them. Those which had not been bitten flew off in a
compact body, while the birds that had been but slightly
wounded made for the water, and swam away so fast that
they seemed to be running on the surface." " Their flight
was rapid, resembling that of the Red-backed Sandpiper,
Tringa alpina ; and they performed various evolutions, some-
times skimming over the water, when they kept more apart
than either when rising at first or when they reached a
certain height; on attaining which they pursued their course
with alternate inclinations to either side. According to
Captain J. C. Ross, these birds breed in gi'cat numbers for
north. The eggs, of which he has favoured me with some,
measure an inch and a quarter by seven-eighths ; their

288 PHALAROPUS LOBATUS.

ground colour is dull greenish-yellow, irregularly blotched
and dotted with reddish-brown." Specimens from Parry's
second expedition, brought by ^Ir. Fisher, are an inch and
two-eighths long, seven-eighths in breadth, oil-green, clouded
over the large half with umber-brown, spotted with the
same in the smaller ; they are broadish oval, approaching to
pyriforjn, with the broad end hemispherical, the other rather
abruptly rounded.

289

LOBIPES. LOliEFOOT.

It appears that only three species of this genus are
known. One of these I have not seen. From the other
two, which I have carefully examined, I derive the following
generic characters. They are small hirds, of slender form,
■with the body somewhat elongated ; the neck rather long
and slender ; the head small, compressed, with the forehead
elevated and rounded.

Uill riither longer than the head, straight or very slightly
bent upwards, very slender, depressed, tapering ; upper man-
dible with the dorsal line straight, the ridge convex, flattened
at the base, the nasal groove extending nearly to the end,
the tip slender and pointed; lower mandible with the angle
long and extremely narrow, the sides sloping outwards and
p-ooved for three-fourths, the tip acute. ]Mouth extremely
narrow ; tongue long, emarginate and papillate at the base,
presently contracted, extremely slender, horny, trigonal,
grooved above, tapering to a fine point ; oesophagus narrow,
nearly uniform ; proventriculus oblong ; stomach elliptical,
with strong lateral muscles, large tendons, and dense, longi-
tudinally rugous epithelium ; intestine of moderate length
and width ; cocca of moderate length, cylindrical, contracted
at the base.

Eyes small ; nostrils basal, linear ; aperture of ear
roundish, and of moderate size. Feet of moderate length,
slender ; tibia bare to a considerable extent ; tarsus mode-
rate, much compressed, thin-edged anteriorly ; the first toe
diminutive ; the anterior toes of moderate length, the second
slightly shorter than the fourth, which is not much exceeded
by the third ; the three eonnected at the base by wt-bs, of
which the outer is longer, and laterally margined with a

290 LOBITES LOBEFOOT.

lobed and pectinated membrane. Claws very small, curved,
compressed, pointed.

Plumage full, soft, blended ; the feathers oblong and
much curved. "NVings long, pointed, the first quill longest ;
secondaries fifteen, rather short, incurved, the inner very
long and tapering. Tail rather short, much rounded, of
twelve feathers.

Lobipes differs from Phalaropus chiefly in having the bill
more slender, depressed, and tapering to a point, instead of
becoming enlarged toward the end. There is, however, little
difference in their habits. These birds resemble the Tringa?
and Totani in their modes of walking and flying, as Avell as
in their food, which consists of insects, Crustacea, and mol-
lusca ; but they are often seen swimming in lakes, and even
in the open sea, sometimes many leagues from land. They
liave not, however, the faculty of diving ; in Avhich respect
they differ from the Coots and Grebes, Avith which some
have associated them, merely on account of their scalloped
toes. They moult twice in the year, their summer plumage
being more variegated and more brightly coloured than that
of winter ; and are said to breed in marshy places and on
the edges of lakes, laying four pyriform spotted eggs.

Independently of otlier considerations, the structure of
the digestive organs is sufficient to point out the aflinities of
these birds.

,<t^^

291

LOBIPES IIYPERBOREUS. THE RED-NECKED
LOBEFOOT.

KKD PIIALAKOl'E. HKOWN I'lIALAUOl'K. HYPERBOREAN PHALAROPE.

Fig. 23.

Tringa hyperborca. Liun. Syst. Nat. I. 249.

rhalaiopu3 hypcrboreus. Lath. Iiid. Orn. II, 775.

Phalaropus fuscus. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 776. Young.

Red Phahmipc. Mont. Orn. Diet, and Supplt.

Phalarope hypcrbore. Phalaropus hypcrboreus. Temra. Man. d'Orn. II. 709.

Red Lobofoot. Lobipcs hyperborca. Selb. lUustr. II. 16G.

Lobipes hypcrboreus. Bouap. Conip. List. 54.

7/1 ivinter the forehead, cheeks, fore- neck, and all the loner
parts white; the uj^per part of the head, a hand below the
eyes, and a narrow hand along the hind-neck blackish -grey ;
upper parts of the body greyish-black, streaked with white;
wings icith a white band. In summer the upper p>arts blackish-
grey ; the feathers of the back and the scapnlars edged with
light red; of which colour are the sides and fore part of the
neck; throat, breast, and abdomen white; sides grey; wings
witJi a ivhite band. Young with the upper jmrts blackisfi-
brown, the feathers bordered with light red; quills and wing-
coverts broivnish-black, edged and tipped with white ; forehead,
throat, fore-neck, breast, and abdomen n-Jtite; sides of neck
tinged with reddish-yelloir.

292 LOBIPES HYPERBOREUS.

This species having come uiuler my observation only
once in winter, I sluiU first describe its appearance in
summer. It is inferior in size to the Dunlin, but nearly of
the same form, though rather more slender. Being much
more numerous with us than the Grey Phalarope, I have
had ()])])oitunities of examining many specimens.

Male in Summer. — Body rather slender; neck rather
long ; head small, and much rounded above. Bill a little
longer than the head, very slender, depressed, tapering ; the
ridge convex, but flattened at the base ; the grooves on both
mandibles extending to more than three-fourths ; the tips
attenuated, the upper slightly deflected. The mouth is very
narrow, having a breadth of only two-twelfths and a half;
the tongue ten-twelfths long, extremely slender, horny,
channfdlcd above, tapering to a point. The legs are of
moderate length ; the tarsus compressed, thin-edged ante-
ri(n-ly, with about twenty scutella. Tlic hind toe is ex-
tremely small, a little elevated, with a small inferior mem-
l)ranous lobe ; the anterior toes slender, Avebbed at the base,
and having their margins expanded into crenatc lobes ; on
the second toe are two internal and one external lobe ; on
the third two internal and two external ; on the fourth one
internal and four external. The claws are extremely small,
much curved, compressed, and pointed.

The plumage is very soft and blended ; the feathers of
the back, and especially the scapulars, elongated. The
wings are long and pointed ; the first (juill longest, the
s(M-ond scarcely shorter, the other ])riniaries rapidly gradu-
ated; the inner secondaries tapering and elongated, one of
thcni bving nearly as long as the outer primary Avhen the
Aving is closed. The tail is rather short, and much ruunded.
The bill is black ; the iris dusky ; the feet dark bluish-
grey ; the claws l)lack. The up])c'r part and sides of tin
head, Avith tlie hind-neck, blackish-gr(>y ; the rest of the
up))er parts greyish-black ; the sides and fore part of the neck
ligiit red ; some of the feathers of the back and the scapulars
broadly margined AA'ith yelloAvish-red. The Aving-coAcrts and
tjuills are greyish-black ; the tips of the larger small coverts

RED-XECKED LOBEFOOT. 'J93

and of the outer st'cuncUry coverts, the iiiargins of tlu; inner,
and the shafts of the quills white. Tlie tail-feathers grey,
margined with white, the four middle blackish-grey ; the
lateral upper tail-coverts broadly barred witli white and
blackish-grey. The throat and lower part of the cheeks
white ; of which colour also is part of the upper eyelid ; the
lower part of tlie neck in front and the sides of the body
dark grey ; the rest of the lower ])arts white; the mar;^inal
wing-coverts dusky grey, with broad white margins.

Length to end of tail 7 inches; extent of wings 14; l»ill
along the ridge \^, along the edge of lower maudihk^ 1 ;
wing from flexure -i-fj ; tail '2-^ ; tarsus -|4 ; first toe -,v, its
claw a half-twelfth ; second toe -^, its claw -jL. • third toe-^,
its claw -fzr ; fourth toe j%-, its claw -^.

Femalf: in Summer. — The female resembles the male,
but has the dark parts more grey, the red lighter and less
extended, the fore neck Avith more gTcy intermixed with the
red, the grey on the sides of greater extent. The digestive
organs of an individual which I examined for Mr. Audubctn
were as follows : — The palate straight, with tAvo longitudinal
ridges, and three anterior series of papilhe. The tongue ten-
aud-a-half-twelfths long, emarginate and papillate at the
base, presently contracted, extremely slender, channelled
above, tapering to a point. The oesophagus three inches and
a half long, two-twelfths in width ; the proventriculus four-
twelfths in breadth. The stomach roundish or broadly ellip-
tical, oblique, eight-twelfths long, seven-twelfths in breadth,
with the lateral muscles large and distinct, the lower promi-
nent and thick ; the epithelium of moderate thickness, dense,
with numerous longitudinal ruga?. The intestine eleven
inches and a quarter in length, three-twelfths in breadth,
diminishing to a twelfth and a half ; the coeca ten-twelfths
long, one-twelfth in width, but at the base only a quarter of
a twelfth ; the rectum an inch and a quarter long, the cloaca
iive-twelfths in width. The digestive organs are thus ex-
actly similar to those of the Tringrc and Totani.

Length to end of tail 7^ inches ; extent of wings 14^ ;
bill along the ridge \^ ; Aving from flexure 4-~V ; tail i^j'y ;

'2in LOBIPi:S HYPERBOllFX'S.

bare part of tibia -^V ; tardus \^ ; first toe -j^, its claw -jL ;
second toe -j^, its claw -jV ; third toe -/V, its claw -^ ; fourth
toe -j^, its claw -j^.

Adult in Winter. — At this season I have seen only one
individual, of which the sex was not determined. The bill
black ; the feet dark bluish-grey. The forehead, cheeks,
sides and fore part of the neck, breast, abdomen, and lower
tail-coverts white ; the sides streaked with grey ; the upper
])art of the head, a band below the eyes, and a band down
the hind -neck blackish-grey ; the back gTcyish-black, the
larger feathers and scapulars margined with white ; the
wings and tail as in summer.

Habits. — The Red-necked Lobefoot has long been known
as an inhabitant of the Orkney Islands. Pennant makes
mention of a specimen shot on the island of Stronsay, in
May, 17G9. Mr. Simmonds, in the Transactions of the
Linna;an Society, refers to six females and tAvo males, ob-
tained, in 1803, in Sanda and North Ronaldsha. Mr. Bullock,
in a letter to Montagu, says : — " I found the Red Phalarope
common in the marshes of Sanda and Westra in the breeding
S'.-ason, but which it leaves in the autumn. This bird is so
extremely tame that I killed nine without moving out of the
same spot, being not in the least alarmed at the report of a
gun. It lays four eggs of the shape of that of a Snipe, but
much less ; of an olive colour, blotched with dusky. It
swims with the greatest ease, and when on the water looks
like a l)eautiful miniature of a Duck, carrying its head close
to the back, in the manner of a Teal." Mr. Salmon, in the
Magazine of Natural History, gives the following account of
it, as observed by him in Orkney in 1831 : — " This beautiful
little bird apj)eared to lie very tame ; although we shot two
pairs, those that were swimming about did not take the least
notice of the report of the gun ; and they S(H'med to be much
attached to cacli other, for wlien one of tliem flew to a short
distance, the other directly followed ; and while I hc>ld a
f(>male that was wounded in my hand, its mate came and
fluttered before my face. We were much gratified in watching

RED-NECKED LOBEFOOT. ^95

the motions of these elegant little creatures, as they kept
swimminj^ about, and were for ever dippinj^- their bills into
the water; and so intent were they upon their occupation,
that they did not take the least notice of us, although witliin
a few yards of them. The female has not that brilliant bay
colour upon the sides of the neck and breast, so conspicuous
in the male. After some little difficulty, we were fortunate
in finding their nests, which were placed in small tufts of
grass growing close to the edge of the loch ; they were
formed of dried giass, and were about the size of that of a
Titlark, but much deeper. The eggs are considerably smaller
than those of the Dunlin, and beautifully spotted all over with
brown. They had but just commenced laying (June 13), as
we found only from one to two eggs in each nest ; but we
were informed by a boy, whom we engaged in our service,
that they always lay four, and are called by the name of
Half-web." Mr. Dunn, in his Ornithologists' Guide to Orkney
and Shetland, says : — " I have never seen this bird in Shet-
land. I got several in Orkney ; but it is not plentiful. It
arrives in the month of July, and departs on the approach of
winter. It breeds in August, and builds its nest in swampy
situations close to the edge of the water; sometimes on small
green islands in the middle of the lakes. The places where
I procured their eggs, and found the birds most numerous,
are in a small sheet of water three or four miles from the
lighthouse of Sanda, a lake near Nunse Castle, in Westra,
and at Sandwich, near Stromness."

Southwards, it has been obtained in the Firth of Forth
and on the coasts of Northumberland, Yorkshire, and Norfolk.
It probably occurs in the Hebrides, although I never sa^ it
there. M. Nillsou mentions its occurrence iu Sweden and
Norway. Mr. W. Proctor found it in Iceland. Dr. Kichard-
son says it breeds on all the arctic coasts of America ; and
Mr. Audubon found it at Boston, and from thence to Labrador.
Its southward migrations appear limited. New York and
Italy being mentioned as its extreme stages. According to
!Mr. Thompson, it has not been observed in Ireland.

Mr. Audubon found the American birds more wary than
oiirs have been represented : — " While at Eastport, in Maine,

296 LOBIPES HYPERBOREUS.

my son John shot several out of Hocks of sixty or more. At
one time a flock consisting of more than a hundred was seen
in the Bay of Fundy. They were exceedingly shy ; and the
gunners of Eastport, who knew them under the name of
Sea Geese, spoke of them as very curious birds.

" They procure their food principally upon tlic water, on
which they alight like Bucks, float as light as Gulls, and
move about iu search of food with much nimbleness. The
sight of a bank of floating sea-weeds or garbage of any kind,
induces them at once to alight upon it, when they walk
about as unconcernedly as if on land. Their notes, which
resemble the syllables twcct, ticcct, twcct, are sharp and dear ;
and in their flight they resemble our common .Imerican
Snipe. At the approach of an enemy they immediately close
their ranks, until they almost touch each other, Avhen great
havoc is made among them ; but if not immediately shot at,
they rise all at once and fly swiftly off", emitting their shrill
cries, and remove to a great distance. These Phalaropes
congregate in this manner for the purpose of moving north-
wards to their breeding gromuls ; although some remain and
breed as far south as Mount Desert Island. I have met with
them in equally large flocks at a distance of more than a
hundred miles from the shores. They were feeding on great
beds of floating sea-weeds, and in several instances some Red
Phalaropes Avere seen in their company.

" AVhilst in Labrador I observed that the Hyberborean
Phalarope occurred only in small parties of a few pairs, and
tliut instead of keeping at sea or on the salt-water bays,
they were always in the immediate vicinity of small fresh-
water lakes or ponds, near which they bred. The nest was
a hollow scooped out among the herbage, and covered with a
few bits of dried gi-ass and moss. The eggs are always four ;
they measure at an average an inch and three-sixteenths in
length, seven-eighths in their greatest diameter; are rather
pointed at the smaller end, and are more uniform in their
size and markings than those of most water birds. The
ground colour is a deep dull buff", and is irregularly marked
with large and small blotches of dark reddish-brown, which
are larj^er and more abundant at the crown. The birds

RED-NFX'KEI) LOBEFOOT, 2i)7

slicwed great anxiety fur the safety of their eggs, Hmpiiig
bofbre us, or running with extended wings, and emitting a
feeble mehmeholy note as if about to cx})ire. When we
approaelied them they resumed all their natural alacrity,
piped in their usual manner, flew off, and alighted on the
water. Ca])tain Emery and myself followed some nearly an
hour, assisted by a pointer dog, in the h()])e of tiring them
out; but they seemed to laugh at our efforts, and when
Dash was quite close to them, they would suddenly fly off in
another direction, and with great swiftness, always leading
us farther from their nests. The young leave the nest
sliortly after they are hatched, and run after their parents
o\ cr the moss, and along the edges of the small ponds ;
but I saw none on the water that were not fully fledged.
Both young and old had de])arted by the beginning of
August.

" I have never procured this species in any part of the
interior, although I have procured the Red Phalarope and
Wilson's Phalarope in many parts to the west of the
Alleghany Mountains, at a distance of more than a thousand
miles from the sea-coast."

Young. — The young, when its plumage is completed,
differs in several respects from the adult, although coloured
in the same manner. The upper ])art of the head, loral
spaces, a band under the eyes, and t\w hind-neck are dark
brown, streaked with dull light yellowish-brown ; on the
forehead some of the feathers are nearly white, and the
upper eyelid is of that colour. On each side of the neck
behind is a broad longitudinal band of light red, streaked
with dusky. The u])per parts of the body are greyish-
black ; the feathers of the fore part of the back and the
sciipulars margined with pale yellowish-red ; the wings as in
the adult, but with the white band narrower ; the tail dull
ash-grey, with the two middle feathers darker. The throat
and lower part of the cheeks arc white ; the fore-nock, with
a portion of the breast and the sides, dark grey, the feathers
margined with white, the rest of the lower parts white.
The bill is black ; the feet greenish-grey, part of the webs

298 LOBIPES HYPERBOREUS.

yellow. The (lifFerenccs in tlie young merely amonnt t(»
this : — The tints are lightc>r ; the \\d on the neek is reduced
to a band of pale reddish-yellow, streaked with dusky ; the
light red margins of the dorsal feathers and scapulars are
paler ; and the head and hind-neck, instead of being uniform,
are streaked and paler. This description is from a specimen
obtained in Shetland.

2'JU

TOTANIN^E.

TATLERS AND ALLIED SPECIES.

The Tringinac arc so intimately allied to tlie Totanina^,
that most authors consider them as forming one family ; in
wliich they also place the Snipes, or Scolopacinae. They
certainly differ little in their general appearance, and their
digestive organs are the same. But "vvhile the Tringina>
have the body moderately stout, the legs mostly of ordinary
length, and the bill, though long, soft and blunt at the end,
the Totanina; are remarkable for their slender body, very
elongated legs, and extremely slender bill, attenuated at the
end, pointed, and in its terminal half firm, though elastic.
They may be characterized as follows : —

The body ovate, compact, rather slender ; the neck long ;
the head small, compressed, rounded in front. The bill
long, straight, sometimes rc-arcuate, or bent a little upwards,
acute. The mouth is extremely narrow ; the tongue very
slender, trigonal, tapering, horny toward the end, pointed.
(Esophagus narrow, Avith an oblong or bulbiform proventri-
culus ; stomach elliptical or roundish, with the lateral muscles
moderately thick ; the epithelium dense and longitudinally
rugous ; intestine long and of moderate Avidth ; coeca of
moderate length and narrow.

Nostrils linear, small, pervious, sub-basal. Eyes rather
small. Aperture of ear rather large. Legs very long,
slender ; tibia bare to a great extent ; tarsus slender, com-
pressed, anteriorly and posteriorly scutellate ; toes four, the
hind toe very small and elevated ; or three only, slender, of
moderate length, Avebbed at the base ; claAvs small, slightly
arched, compressed, rather obtuse.

Plumage Acry soft and blended ; on the upper parts
rather compact. Wings very long, pointed, Avith the first

300

TOTANIN.E.

(|uill longest ; inner secondaries elongated and tapering.
Tail short, rounded, of twelve rather soft feathers.

These birds, -wliich are most strictly littoral and true
waders, fretjuent the margins of the sea, estuaries, rivers,
and lakes, or marshy grounds. Their food consists of mol-
lusca, insects, Crustacea, and other animals, Avhich they obtain
in the water or on the ground, sometimes also by probing
the mud or soft sand. Gregarious in Aviuter, they then
collect into small bands, and frequent chielly the estuaries.
They run with great celerity, but not so continuously as the
Tringinpe, their mode of searching being more desultory than
theirs ; and are remarkable for vibrating or balancing their
body when standing. Their flight is rapid, light, and rather
buoyant and Avavering ; and their cries are loud and shrill,
and under excitement reiterated. Most of the species are
more or less migratory. Their nests are slightly constructed,
or merely a hollow, with some vegetable flbres ; the eggs
four, pyriform, and spotted. The young, covered with down,
are active from the first, but usually conceal themselves by
crouching. Their flesh is equally esteemed with that of the
Tringinae.

I'lG. 24.

SYNOPSIS OF TJIE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES

fJEXl'S I. lUXrUVIROSTKA. AVOSI-.T.

|{ill more than twice the length of tli(> head, very slender,
depressed, tapering to a point, and slightly recurved ; the

TATLERS AM) ALLIl'.l) Sl'KC'Ii:S. 301

odj^es of both luaiuUblcs thick and <^ro(nu(l. Nostrils basal,
linear. Logs very lon<^, slender ; tibia bare for half its
len<jfth ; tarsus reticulated ; hind toe extremely small and
elevated ; anterior toes rather short, and connected by very
deeply emarginate webs. Wings long, rather narrow, pointed.
Tail short, nearly even.

1. llecurcirostra Acucctta. Black-and-white Acoact. Dill
black ; feet greyish-blue ; plumage white ; upper part of
head, hind-neck, some of the scajjulars, tlie smaller win<4-
coverts, and the primary quills and coverts black.

GENUS II. IiniANTOPUS. STILT-SIIAN K.

Bill about twice the length of the head, almost straight,
lieing very slightly recurved, very slender, roundish, tapering ;
the edges of both mandibles sharp and inflexed. Nostrils
sub-basal, linear. Legs extremely long, slender ; tibia bare
for more than half its length ; tarsus compressed, reticulated ;
no hind toe ; toes of moderate length, slender ; the inner
connected with the middle toe by a very slight web, the
outer by a web extending nearly to the second joint. Wings
extremely long, exceeding the ti.il, acute ; tail short, nearly
even.

1. lUmantopus melanopierKs. Black-icinfjcd Stilt-shank.
Bill black ; feet vermilion ; plumage white, the breast tinged
with rose-colour ; upper part of head and nape greyish-
black ; fore part of back, scapulars, and wings black, glossed
with green ; tail ash-gvey.

GEXrS III. GLOTTIS. LONG-SIIANK.

Bill about half as long again as the head, beyond the
middle slightly inclined upwards, very slender, roundish,
tapering ; the edges of both mandibles inflexed. Nostrils
sub-basal, linear. Legs very long, slender ; tibia bare for
nearly half its length ; tarsus compressed, scutellate before
and behind ; toes four, anterior of moderate length, slightly
webbed at the base. Wings very long, pointed. Tail short,
somcAvhat rounded.

302 TOTAXIX.E.

1. Glottis Chloropus. Green-legged Long-shank. Bill
greenish-brown, black toward the end ; feet greenish-grey.
In winter, the lower parts white; the fore part of the back,
scapulars, and wing-coverts greyish-brown, the feathers edged
with whitisli. In summer, the fore neck and breast white,
with oblong black spots ; the fore part of the back, and the
scapulars black, the feathers margined with whitish.

GENUS IV. TOTANUS. TATLER.

Bill about a third longer than the head, straight, very
slender, the tip of the upper mandible slightly declinate,
narrowed, blunt, a little exceeding the lower ; edge of botli
luandibles thick, with a linear groove. Nostrils basal, linear.
Legs long, very slender ; tibia bare to a considerable extent ;
tarsus scutellate before and behind ; toes small, the first
diminutive, anterior with basal webs, of which the outer is
larger. Wings long, pointed. Tail short, rounded.

1. Totanus fuscus. Dusky Redshank Tatler. Bill red
in its basal half, the other brownish-black ; feet orange-red ;
secondary quills black, barred with white.

~. Totanus Calidris. Common Redshank Tatler. liill
red in its basal half, the other brownish-black ; secondary
quills black at the base, white toward the end.

3. Totanus ochropus. Green Tatler. Bill dusky abo\i',
I'eddish below ; feet greyish-blue, tinged with brown ; tail
nearly even, white, th(; four middle feathers with three
blackish-biown bars toward the end, the outermost feather
plain.

4. Totatius GLireola. Wood Tatler. Bill dusky, greenish
at the base ; feet greenish-grey ; tail doubly emarginate,
white, all the feathers barred to the base with blackisli-
brown ; the outermost with the inner web plain.

GENUS V. ACrniS. WEKT-WEET.

Bill not longer llian the liead, straight, very slender, tlie
tip of the upper mandible slightly declinate, narrowed.
blunti.sh, u little exceeding the lowi'r ; edges of both man-

TATLERS AND ALU ED SPECIES. 303

dibit's thin iiiul sharp. Nostrils basul, linear. L''}^s of
moderate length, very slender ; tibia bare to a considerable
extent ; tarsns scntellate before and behind ; toes small ; tlie
anterior webbed at the base. \\'ings long, pointed. Tail
short, rounded.

1. Actitis Tfi/j}o/<//ros. ^VJiitc-bn'Onted UWf-weet . Bill
dusky ; feet greenish-grey ; upper parts glossy greenish-
brown, transversely banded and undulated with dark brown ;
lower j)arts white, excepting tlie fore jjart and sides of the
neck, which are greyish, with faint dusky lines.

2. Actiti.s maciduria. Spotted Weet-iveet. Jiill dusky at
the point, greenish-brown al)ove, yellow beneath ; up])(T
parts glossy greenisli-brown, transversely banded with dark
brown ; lower parts white, marked all over with roundish
dusky spots.

304

TxEC URVIl^OSTRA. AVOSET.

The Avoccts form a gcims of birds remarkable for having
their long and very slender bill considerably curved upAvards.
Although in all other respects very similar to the Totani,
their anterior toes are connected by Avebs of large extent.
Their body is compact, ovate, rather slender ; the neck long ;
the head small, ovate, compressed, rounded above.

Bill more than twice the length of the licad, very slender,
depressed or broader than high, tapering to the point, slightly
recurved : iipper mandible Avith the dorsal line straight for
half its length, then curved upwards, the ridge flattened, the
nasal groove very narrow and extending to a third, the point
slightly decurved ; lower mandible with the angle long and
very narrow, the dorsal line slightly curved upwards, the
])oint very slender and curved a little u})wards, the edges
of both mandibles thick and grooved. Two longitudinal
series of blunt reversed papilla? on the palate. Tongue
slightly emarginate and papillate at the base, slender, taper-
ing, pointed, flattened above, horny beneath. Oesophagus
narrow, dilated a little about the middle ; proventriculus
with oblong glandules. Stomach an oblong gi/zard of mode-
rate strength, with distinct muscles, large tendons, and
dense, longitudinal rugous epithelium. Intestine rather
long and of moderate width ; caM-a rather long, cylindrical,
narrow.

Eyes small ; nostrils basal, linear, perforated ; apcrturi'
of ear rouTulish, rallu'r large. Leg very long, slender ; tibia
l)are for lialf its lengtli, reticulated; tarsus very long, com-
pressed, reticulated with hexagonal scales ; hind toe cx-
tn^nely small and elevated ; anleuor toes ratlur short, tlie
outer a little longer than the second, all scutellate, and con-

IlFX'URVIIiOSTKA. A\"()Si:r. iw.j

noctcd by webs, which arc very (h'cply ciiiar^iuatc, l)ut run
to the end ; claws very small, almost strai<i;ht, compressed,
taj)orinij, obtuse.

I'hniia<;e very soft and blcuih'd ; win^s lout;, rather nar-
row, pointed ; tlie first quill lonj^est ; the ])rimaries tapering,
ra})idly graduated ; the secondaries broad, incurved, the inner
elongated and tajjcring ; tail sliort, nearly even, of twelve
rather narrow feathers.

Of the very few species belonging to this genus one
occurs in Europe, and is sometimes met with in England.
They resemble the Totani in their habits, but are more
addicted to wading, and are occasionally S(»en to swim. The
American species is described by Mr. Audubon as searching
the soft mud with a lateral wriggling motion of the head, in
the manner of the Spoonbill. The eggs are four, pyriform,
and spotted.

By overlooking the structure of tliese birds, some authors
have entirely misplaced them in their systems. They are
evidently most closely allied to the Himantopi, Totani, and
other genera of that grou}).

306

RECURVmOSTRA AVOCETTA. THE BLACK-AND-
WHITE AVOCET.

SCOOPING AVOSET. SCOOPKR. CROOKED-BILL. COBLER'S-AWL. YELI'ER.

Rccurvirostra Avocetta. Liun. Syst. Nat. I. 156.

Recurvirostra Avocetta. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 786.

Scooping Avoset. Mont. Om. Diet.

Avocette a nuque noir. Recurvirostra Avocetta. Tcmin. Man. d'Orii. II.

590.
Recurvirostra Avocetta. Scooping Avocct. Flcm. Brit. Anim. 101.
Scooping Avocet. Recurvirostra Avocetta. Sclb. Illustr. II. 90.
Recurvirostra Avocetta. Scooping Avoset. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 201.
Recurvirostra Avocetta. Bouap. Comp. List. 54.

Vppi'r part of the head and hind neck for half its length
l)lach ; the rest irhife, excepting some of the scapulars, the
smaller icing-eorerts, and the primanj quills and cocerts,
which ore blaeh.

Male. — Tliis beautiful bird, wliicli is easily distinguisbod
ainonu; our wadcis by its seniipahuated feet, is of a slender
form, witb tlie body luodcratc, the neck long, the head small
a!ul mueli elevated in front ; tlu^ bill is more than twice the
h'ngtli of the head, very slender, ta})ering, depressed, recurved

BLACK-AND-WHITE AVOCDT. 307

beyond tlic middle, with the tips very small and curved
toward each other. The nostrils are small and linear ; the
eyes also small, with the eyelids feathered. The tibia is bare
for nearly half its length ; the tarsus slender, compressed
and reticulated. Tlie hind toe is extremely sniall and
elevated ; the fore toes of moderate length, or rather short,
semipalmated or connected by webs, which extend to tin ir
ends, but have their anterior margin concave, as if cut out
for half their length. The claws are very snnill, almo'-t
straight, tapering obtuse.

The ])lumage is very soft and blended on the head and
neck; rather compact on the back and wings ; the latter long
and pointed, the first quill being longest, and the other pri-
maries rapidly graduated ; the inner secondaries tapering,
and some of them, wlien the wing is closed, reaching to
within an inch of the outer primary. The tail is short,
nearly even, of twelve rather narrow, rounded feathers.

The bill is black ; the feet gTeyish-blue, the toi's darker,
the claws black. All the upper part of the head, including
the lural space, a small band rnuler the eye, and the hind
neck for half its length, are brownish-black ; tlie rest of the
neck, all the lower parts, the under wing-coverts, the middle
and ^ hind part of the back, and the tail are white. On
the fine part of the back on each side is an oblic^ue band of
black, including most of the scapulars ; the smaller wing-
coverts are black, the larger white, but the inner with a
blackish-brown [patch. The primary quills and their coverts
are white at the base, brownish-black in the rest of their
extent ; the secondary quills white, as is the alula.

Length to end of tail 18 inches; bill along the ridge Sj ;
wing from flexure 9^ ; tail Sj ; bare part of tibia 1 j^ 5 tarsus
2\^ ; first toe -^, its claw -pV ; second toe l-y^^, its claw -f^ ;
third toe 1^, its claw -pj ; fourth toe 1^, its claw -pV.

Female. — The female is similar to the male, but some-
what smaller.

Habits. — Not having seen this bird alive, I can give no
certain account of its habits, wliich most authors seem to

30S RECURVIROSTRA AVOCETTA.

havi' iufoiTod from its structiivo, rather tlian actually observed.
Mr. Selby merely repeats, with the necessary amplification,
Avliat Montagu relates ; and Mr. Moody, after informing us
•' in -what time would the productive power of a single pair
of fishes, if it could act unrestrained, convert the matter of
the whole solar system into fish," gives a very particular
account of its mode of proceeding, but omits the very essen-
tial declaration of his having seen and watched the bird
scooping " alternately left and right, with ease, with effect,
and even with a grace, almost unparelled in the action of
birds." All that seems to be authentic in the accounts given
by authors may be reduced to few words.

The Avocet, Avhich is now of rare occurrence in any part
of the country, still bred in jSIontagu's time in the fens of
Lincolnshire, and in Romney Marsh, in Kent ; but appears
now to rank in England only as a casual visitant, or winter
resident. . Assembling in small flocks, in winter, it frequents
the shores and estuaries of the south-eastern coasts, and
feeds on Avorms, insects, and mollusca, which it obtains, it is
said, not by patting or probing, but by an alternating lateral
motion of tlie bill among the soft mud. The use of its webs
seems to be chiefly to support it on the yielding surface, for
it has not been observed to SAvim. It wades out in the water,
runs with rapidity, vibrates its body when standing, has a
powerful flight, and a long shrill cry. According to M. Tem-
minck, it forms a small cavity among the grass or in the
sand, and lays two, seldom thre;^, eggs, of an olivaceous grey
colour, sprinkled Avith numerous blackish spots. It is said
to resemble the Totani and other birds of this family, in its
attempt to decoy intruders from its nest or young.

It is met Avith in Africa, various parts of Asia, aiul in
Kurop(^ as far north as SAveden. In England it is noAv scarce,
and I have not seen a specimen obtained in Scotland ; but
the Rev. ]SIr. James Leslie, of Coul, and Dr. Dickie, of Bel-
fiist, inform me that "one Avas shot in the Old Toavu Links,
Aberdeen, in 1S41." ^Iv. Thomson mentions several speci-
mens met witli in Ireland.

VoiN(;. — The young, when their plumage is complete,

BLACK-AXD-WIilTK AM)CI:T. .'ioy

ditfer little from the adult, the eulours lieiii^' simihiily dis-
tributed, but tlie black shaded Avith l)r()wu.

Remarks. — In relating- the liistory o^ Recurvirostra Ameri-
cana, Mr. Audubon, who met with several individuals about a
pond in Indiana, presents, among' others, tlie following state-
ments : — " On alighting,whether on the water or on the ground,
the American Avoset keeps its wings raised until it has iairly
settled. If in the water, it stands a few minutes balancing-
its head and neck, somewhat in the manner of the Tell-tale
Godwit. After this it stalks about searching for food, or
runs after it, sometimes swimming for a yard or so while
passing from one shallow to another, or wading up to its
body, Anth the wings partially raised. Sometimes they Avould
enter among the rushes, and disappear for several minutes.
* * * They search for food precisely in the manner of the
Roseate Spoonbill, mo-vdng their heads to and fro sideways,
Avhile their bill is passing through the soft mud ; and in
many instances, when the Avater was deeper, they would
immerse their whole head and a portion of the neck, as the
Spoonbill and Red-breasted Snipe are wont to do. When,
on the contrary, they pursued aquatic insects, such as swim
on the surface, they ran after them, and on getting up to
them, suddenly seized them by thrusting the lower mandible
beneath them, while the other was raised a good way above
the surface, much in the manner of the Black Shearwater,
which. hoAvcver, performs this act on wing. They were also
expert in catching flying insects, after which they ran with
partially expanded wings."

310

IIIMANTOPUS. STILT-SHANK.

The importance of tlic hind toe in the Grallatorcs has
hcen much over-rated, otherwise the Ilimantopi, which in
all essential characters are most intimately connected with
the Totani and Eecurvirostra', would never have hoen placed
in connection with tlie Plovers, with which they have very
little affinity. A similar error has heen committed by M.
Temminck, when, on account of their agTceing in havinj^
scolloped margins to their toes, he places together, to consti-
tute his family of Pinnatipedes, birds so essentially different
in structure as the Coots, Phalaropes, and Grebes, separating
the first from the Gallinulcs, which differ very little from
them, the last from the Divers, with which they are inti-
mately connected, and the Phalaro])es from the Tringa* and
Totani, which are their natural allies. Thus it is that arti-
ficial distinctions give rise to unnatviral associations.

The Himantopi are of a singularly slender form, with
legs so extremely elongated as to suggest the idea of a bird
walking on stilts. The body, however, is rather compact,
and possessed of considerable muscularity ; but the neck is
very long and slender ; the head small, compressed, and
much rounded above.

Bill about twice the length of the head, almost straight,
being very slightly recurved, very slender, roundish, taper-
ing ; upper mandible with the ridge convex, rather flattened
at the base, the sides convex, the nasal groove extending
half its length, the edges sharp and inflected, the tip very
narrow, rather acute, and slightly decui'vate ; lower man-
dible with the angle long and extremely narrow, the sides
y;rooved nearly as far as the angle, the edges sharp and
infl(Hted, the tip extremely narrow, and just at the end
turned a little u])wards. Both maTidibles are concave within,

HIMANTOPUS. STILT-SHANK. 311

the groove thus fonned heing cxtrciiicly nurnjw, tluit of tlio
lower deeper. Toii<>ue scarcely half the length of the hill,
very slender, tapering, emarginate and papillate at the; hase,
pointed. Q-lsophagus narrow : proventriculus ohlong. Sto-
niacli elliptical, with its lateral muscles moderately thick,
the epithelium dense, and longitudinally rugous. Intestine
of moderate length, narrow ; cceca rather short, very narrow.

Eyes rather small. Nostrils rather long, linear, suh-
hasal, pervious. Aj)erture of ear roundish, rather large. Legs
extremely long and slender ; tihia hare for more than half
its length ; tarsus very slender, compressed, reticulated with
elongated hexagonal scales ; toes of moderate length, slender,
scutellate unless toward the hase ; no hind toe ; the outer a
little longer than the inner, and connected with the third hy
a weh extending nearly to the second joint, and forming
narrow margins to the tv^^o toes ; the inner with a very
slight web. Claws small, slightly arched, compressed, obtuse.

Plumage of the head, neck, and lower parts very soft and
blended ; of the back and wings compact. Wings extremely
long, exceeding the tail, narrow, acute, of twenty-eight
quills ; the primaries tapering, the first longest, the rest
rapidly graduated ; the secondaries rather narrow, incurved,
some of the inner tapering and elongated. Tail short, nearly
even, of twelve feathers.

These birds entirely resemble the Totani in their habits,
fly Avith rapidity, are remarkably vociferous, walk and run
with celerity, vibrate their body when standing, search the
mud and sands for worms, insects, Crustacea, and mollusca,
often wading far into the water. The eggs are four, pyri-
form, and spotted. The males are larger than the females,
as in all the Limosinse.

It is stated by Montagu, that " six of this species were
shot out of seven in a flock, in the month of April, at the
verge of a lake not very far distant from Farnham, in
Surrey. One of them was preserved by the late Eev. Mr.
White, of Selborne," and was seen by Montagu witli Mr.
Wliite, of Fleet Street. It was " wholly white, except the
wings and back as far as the rump, which were black."

312

IIIMANTOPUS MELANOPTERUS. THE BLACK-
WINGED STILT-SHANK.

STII.T. I.ONGSIIANK. LONG-LEGGED PLOVER. LONG-LEGS.

Cliaradrius Ilimantopus. linn. Svst. Nat. I. 2.5.5.
Charadiius Ilimantopus. Lath. Ind. Om. II. 711.
Long-legged Plover. Cliaradrius Ilimautopus. Mont. Omitb. Diet, and

Supplt.
Eohasse a mantcau noir. Ilimantopus mclanoptcrus. Temm. JIan.

d'Omith. II. 528 ; III. 350.
Ilimantopus Plinii. Long-lo^s. Flcm. Brit. Anim. 112.
lUack-winged .Stilt. Ilimantopus nielanopterus. Selb. Illustr. II. 247.
Ilimantopus mclauopterus. Black- winged Long-shanks. Jen. Brit. Vert.

An. 201.
Himantopus mclanoptcrus. Bonap. Comp. List, 54.

In sumnur the hill black; the feet vermilioti ; forehead,
cheeks, neck, lower parts and sides of the bod;/, irith the
(/r eater part of the back, irhite; the breast tinged with rose-
colour; xqyper part of head and nape (jreyish-blaek ; fore
part of back, scapulars and winr/s black, glossed with green ;
tail a.sh-greg.

LLACK-WINGED STILT-SIIANK. 313

Male. — This bird, of" wliicli tla- limh.s are so dispropor-
tionably elongated and attenuated, and the whole form so
slender, that one might su])|)ose it liable to be blown over
or swept away by a moderate blast of wind, exhibits the
distinctive charaetcrs of the Limosinae in their liighest
development. Yet Mr. Selby places it between the genera
Charadrius and (Edicnemus, to neither of which has it any
other resemblance than that caused by the want of a hind
toe. Its ovate, rather slender body is elevated upon ex-
tremely elongated, slender, compressed, stilt-like legs, of
which the skin is very thin and reticulated ; the tibia bare
for three inches, or more than half its length ; the toes pro-
portionally short aiul very slender, with the outer web rather
large, the inner scarcely apparent ; the claws small and
rather blunt. The bill is twice the length of the head, very
slender, and slightly recurved. The head much rounded
above, compressed, and small ; the neck long and slender.
The nostrils are linear, four-and-a-half-twelfths long ; the
aperture of the eyes also four-and-a-half-twelfths in diameter.
In all other respects the generic character will afford a correct
idea of the proportions.

The plumage is very soft and blended on the head and
neck ; somewhat blended on the lower, rather compact on
the upper parts of the body. The Avings exceed the tail by
two inches; the primaries are very narrow and tapering, the
first longest, the second half-an-inch shorter, the rest rapidly
decreasing ; the longest inner secondary two inches and a
half shorter than the longest primary. The tail, which is
short, and of twelve narrow feathers, is somewhat emargi-
nate, but with the middle feathers projecting a little.

The bill is black ; the iris crimson ; the feet vermilion ;
the claws black ; the forehead, cheeks, throat, neck all round,
lower parts of the body, middle and hind part of the back,
are white, the breast slightly tinged with rose-colour. The
upper part of the head and the nape are greyish-black ; the
fore part of the back, the scapulars, and inner secondaries
with theii' coverts brownish-black glossed with green ; the
wing glossy gicenish-black ; the lower wing coverts deep
black, the lower surface of the quills greyish-black ; the tail

:)U HIMANTOPUS MELANOPTERUS.

is dark grey, as are some of its upper coverts, the outer tail
feathers nearly wliite.

Length to end of tail 14 inches ; bill along the ridge
2^, along the edge of lower mandible 2-^^ ; wing from
flexure 9^ ; tail 3-^ ; bare part of tibia S^ ; tarsus 4-L^ ;
second toe 1, its claw -^ ; third toe l-^V, its chnv -^ ; fourth
toe l-fij, its claw -frr.

Female. — The female resembles the male, but is some-
what smaller, and with the black of the back less glossy.

A'ariatioxs. — The principal variations which I have seen
are confined to tlie tints of the back and scapulars, Avhich
are more or less tinged with brown, and to the extent of the
dark colour on the nape, which also varies from greyish-
black to dark grey. Two specimens which I have received
from India, along with Tetanus glottis, Totanus stagnatilis,
Tringa subarquata, and other birds, all in their winter
plumage, seem to me to be also winter birds. It does not
appear that authors have been aware of any seasonal change
of plimiage in this species ; but analogy might lead us to
believe that the Himantopi resemble the Totani in this re-
spinet. This is certainly not the young bird in its first
plumage, as none of the dark feathers are in the slightest
degree margined.

Adult in Winter. — Bill and feet as in the summer.
Forehead, a band over the eyes, fore part of neck, breast,
sides, abdomen, lower tail coverts, and the greater part of
the back, white. Upper part of the head, nape, and a line
below the eye, with the ear coverts, ash-grey; the whole
hind part of the neck pale grey, its sides tinged with the
same. The tail feathers and upper coverts pale ash-grey.
The fore part of the back, the scapulars, and the inner
elongated secondaries, with their coverts brown, the latter
glossed with greenish ; the rest of the wing black strongly
glossed witli grccu ; the lower wing coverts brownish-black.

IIaiuts. — All that I can learn of this species is merely

BLACK-WINGED STILT-SIIANK. .315

such as might be cxpecti'd from ornithologists who seem to
consider tlie habits of birds as of Httle importance. It is
said to be pk'ntiful in many parts of Asia, and the south-
eastern portions of Europe, whence it migrates into Gennany,
France, and Italy. It feeds on worms and insects ; and,
according to M, Temminck, nestles on a small eminence
formed in the marshes, laying four eggs of the size and form
of tliose of the Avocet, dull greenish, marked with numerous
grey spots, and dotted with middle-sized and very small spots
of a reddish-brown.

YouNc;. — According to the same author, the young have
the feet of an orange colour, the feathers of the back and
wings brown, with whitish margins ; those of the upper part
of the head, occiput, and nape blackish-grey, with whitish
borders.

olG

GLOTTIS. LONGSHAXK.

The birds of this genus are intimately allied to the
Ilimantopi on the one hand, and the Totani on the other.
Their bill is extremely similar to that of the former birds,
and may therefore be described precisely in the same terms.
If one could take a Stiltshank, shorten its >vings consider-
ably, and diminish the length of its preposterous-looking legs,
leaving them still long enough to exceed those of the Totani,
and add a very small hind toe, he would have a Longshank.
The geniis is not very definite, in one direction at least, for
some birds, ■without showing more caprice than some orni-
thologists, might claim a place in it to-day, and in Totanus
to-morrow, just as some philosophers have one year indig-
nantly scouted the idea of separating them, and the next
year have put them down as distinct, without troubling their
readers with reasons. The Longshanks may l)e knoAvn by
the following characters : —

Their body is ovate and -rather slender, their nvck long
and slender, their head small, oblong, compressed , with the
upi)er part much rounded.

Bill about half as long again as the head, very slender,
r()m])ressi'd towards the end, roundish, tapering, beyond the
middle slightly inclined upwards ; upper mandible with the
ridge convex, as are the sides beyond the middle, the nasal
groove extending nearly half its length, the edges inflected
with a narrow groove, the tip narrowed, slightly decurved,
and somewhat obtuse ; lower mandible with the angle long
and extremely narrow, the sides grooved nearly as far as the
angle, tlie dorsal line sliglitly ascending, the edges inflected,
witli a narrow gi'oove, the tip narrow, rather obtuse, and very
sli<;htly directed upwards. Tongue about half the len;;tli of
the bill, very slen(h*r, tapering, emavginate and papillate at

GLOTTIS. LONGSHANK. 317

the base, horny toward tlic ciul, jjointcd. J>olli iiiaudiblcs
concave witliiii, the groove formed by the lower extremely
narrow. Month very narrow ; (rsophap^ns narrow ; proven-
trifulus oblonj^. Stoniacli cllijjtiial, witli its lateral muscles
moderately thick, the epithelium dense and longitudinally
rugous. Intestine rather long and of moderate width ; cd'ca
of moderate length and narrow.

Eyes rather small. Nostrils rather long, linear, sul)-
busal, pervious. Aperture of ear roundish, rather large.
Legs very long arul slender ; tibia bare for nearly half its
l('n;4tli ; tarsus very slender, compressed, anteriorly and pos-
teriorly scutellate ; hind toe very small and elevated ; ante-
rior toes of moderate length, slightly webbed at the base,
tlie inner a little shorter than the outer. Claws small,
slightly arched, compressed, obtuse.

Plumage of the head, neck, and lower j)arts very solt
and blended ; of the back and wings rather compact. Wings
very long, pointed, with twenty-live quills ; the primaries
tapering, the first longest, the rest rapidly giaduated ; the
secondaries incurved, some of the inner tapering and elon-
gated. Tail short, a little rounded, of tAvelve feathers.

These birds are of moderate size or small. They frequent
tlie shores of the sea, lakes, marshes, and rivers ; feed u])ori
worms, insects, Crustacea, and mollusca, along with Avhich
they swallow sand or gravel ; run with gieat celerity, vibrate
their body when standing, especially if alarmed ; emit a loud
shrill reiterated cry ; and have a rapid, though light and
rather buoyant flight. Their nest is a slight hollow among
sand or herbage; their eggs four, very large, pyriform, and
spotted. The young, at first covered with longish down,
presently run about, and conceal themselves by squatting,
Some species of the genus are found in all parts of the globe.
In Britain (July one occurs. The most characteristic, from
which I have derived tlie above characters, are Glottis chlo-
ropus, Glottis melauoleuca. Glottis semipalmatus, and Glottis
stagnatilis.

It is ludicrous to see the tenacity with which people
adhere to the vernacular, while they are perpetually chaniiing
the scientific nomenclalure, as if the one were sacred, and

318 GLOTTIS. LONGSHANK.

the other to be dealt with according to caprice. If at one
time there is a genus named Scolopax in Latin and Snipe in
English, and at another time the species of that genus be
formed into several genera, as Scolopax, Totanus, Limosa,
these new genera surely ought not to be called Snipe, Snipe,
Snipe. If at one time some species of the genus Tringa are
called Sandpipers, while some of another genus, Totanus,
are also called Sandpipers, being considered to be Tringas,
surely when Totanus and Trinjia come to be well defined,
the species of the one should have a dift'erent English name
from those of the other. It is an established rule that every
genus must have a name. I say every genus must have in
every country tico 7iames, a Latin name and a vernacular
name. Is it possible to adduce a reason to the contrary i
Well, then, Totanus of old used to be called in English
Greenshank, Redshank, Yellowshank, Sandpiper, Plover,
Tatler, "NVillet, Weet-weet, Snipe, &c. But my Totanus I
call simply Tatler ; my Glottis, Longshank ; and my Actitis,
\\ eet-weet. Let who will name them to his mind.

31!)

GLOTTIS CIILOROPUS. THE GREEN-LEGGED
LONGSHANK, OR GREENSHANK.

UIJKEN-LEGGEI) IIOUSKMAN. UKEATEU I'LOVKU. GllEENSIIANK SNll'E.

Scopolax Glottis. Linn. Syst. Xat. I. 245.

Scopolax Glottis. Lath. lud. Orn. IL 720.

Greenshank. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Chevalier Ahoyeur. Tetanus Glottis. Temm. Man. d'Oniith. IL 6)9.

Totanus Glottis. Greenshank. Flcm. Brit. Anim. 104.

Greenshank. Totanus Glottis. Selb. lUustr. Brit. Ornith. IL SG.

Totanus Glottis. Greenshank. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. "200.

Glottis Chloropus. Bonap. Comp. List. ol.

Adult in IVinter ivith the bill g^'eenish-hroicn at the base,
black toxcard the end, the feet greenish-grey ; the head, hind
port and sides of the neck, greyish-ichite, streaked with
brown ; the fore part of the back, scaptdars and icing coverts
gregish-broicn, the feathers edged with whitish; the hind part
of the back, the fore j^art of the face, and all the lower parts
u'hite, but with faint grey markings on the fore part of the
sides, and on the lower wing coverts ; tail ichite, barred with
greyish-brow7i. Adult in si(?n?ner icith the fore neck and
breast marked with oblong black spots ; the fore part of the
back and the scapulars black, the feathers tnargined with
vhiiish.

320 GLOTTIS CHLOIIOPUS.

Male. — The Greenshaiik, which is the only species of
the genus Glottis that occurs in Britain, is of a very slender
form, havini>- the body rather elongated, the neck long, the
head small, oblong, narrowed before, and much rounded in
front. The bill is half as long again as the head, very
slender, compressed toward the end, straight until beyond
the middle, when it inclines slightly upwards. The nasal
grroove and that of the lower nuindible extend nearlv to the
middle ; the upper mandible has the ridge rather flattened
at the base, but with the sides convex beyond the groove,
the edges inflected, with a narrow groove, the tip narrowed,
and slightly decurved ; the lower mandible with the angle
long and extremely narroAv, the dorsal line slightly ascending,
the edges inflected, with a narrow groove, the tip narrow.

Internally both mandibles present a narrow and deep
groove, their sides being thick. The tongue is narrow,
grooved above, sagittate and papillate at the base, horny
toward the end, thin-edged, and pointed ; its length an inch
and a quarter. The mouth is very narroAV ; the oesophagus
six inches and a half long, of the nearly uniform width of four-
twelfths ; the proventriculus oblong, Avith cylindrical glan-
dules. The stomach is elliptical, an inch long, ten-twelftlis
in breadtli, compressed, with the lateral muscles very large,
the epithelium dense and rugous. The intestine is tlnve
feet two inches long, and varies from four-aud-a-half-twelfths
to two-and-a-half-twelfths in Avidth ; the coeca are cylin-
drical, two inches and a half in lengtli, and two-twelfths in
width.

Tlie eyes are rather small, their apertvn-e measuring two-
twelftlis and a half. The nostrils are linear, direct, per-
vious, two-twelfths and a half long. Tlu' aperture of the
car is elliptical, three twelfths and a half in its greatest
diameter. The feet are very long and slender ; the tibia
bare fi>r an inch and a (piarter, with thirteen anterior scu-
tella ; the tarsus compressed, with thirty seutella ; the hind
toe very small and elevated, Avith ^ '\ seutella; the anterior
toes are very slightly Avebbed at the base, flattened beneath,
marginate ; the inner, Avhich is slightly shorter than the
outer, with twenty-four, the middle toe Avith thirly-flve.

GllEEX-LEGGED LONGSIIANK. :i2\

the outer with thirty-two scutclhi. The ehiws are small,
sli;^'litly iirehed, eonipre.ssed, laterally grooved at the base,
with the tip rather blunt.

The ])luniage is blended, very soft, and on the upper
parts a little glossed ; the feathers oblong, narrow, and
rounded ; those ou the fore part of the head short. The
wings are very long and pointed, with twenty-live quills ;
the primaries tapering, the first longest ; the secondaries
short, iueurvate and rounded, except the inner, which taper,
and of which one is scarcely an inch shorter than the longest
])rimary when the wing is closed. The tail is short, and a
little rounded.

The bill is greenish-brown at the base, black toward the
end ; the iris brown ; the feet greenish-grey. The anterior
part of the forehead, the space before the eye, the throat,
fore part of the neck, all the lower parts of the body, and
the middle and hind ])art of the back white. Part of the
loral space is marked with small oblong brownish-grey spots.
The sides of the neck below and a small part of the breast
are faintly barred with grey, and the lower wing-coverts
have a central mark of dusky. The feathers of the upper
part of the head, and of the hind part and sides of the neck,
liave a longitudinal dusky streak in the middle, with broad
greyish-white margins. The scapulars and inner secondar\-
quills are greyish-brown, margined with greyish-white, and
spotted with dusky toward the edges ; the smaller wing-
coverts brownish-grey, the larger darker toward the margin,
and edged with whitish, as are the outer secondaries ; the
primaries and their coverts dusky brownish-grey, the outer
quill with its shaft white. The tail is white, transverselv
undulated with greyish-brown, the outer four feathers on
each side with only a series of spots on the outer edge, and
the outermost with merely narrow longitudinal streaks on
the outer web ; the middle feathers grey toward the end.

Length to end of tail 14:^ inches ; extent of wings 28 ;
bill along the ridge 2-f7T, along the edge of lower mandible
2-f^ ; -wing from flexure '7^ ; tail S^ ; bare part of tibia l-j^ ;
tarsus 2-j5j ; first toe ^, its claw -^ ; second toe -|4, its claw
-j^; third toe 1^, its claw ^2^; fourth toe -j^, its claw ^.

322 GLOTTIS CIILOROPUS.

Femalk. — The female is slightly smaller, but does not
differ from the male in colour.

Habits. — The Greenshank is generally dispersed in
England and some of the southern parts of Scotland during
the winter, Avlu^n it is seen in small flocks here and there
along the sea-shore, by the margins of rivers, and in marshy
places ; but it is nowhere common, and in most districts of
very rare occurrence, liy the beginning of simimer it has
disappeared from its -winter haunts, and advanced north-
wards, individuals or pairs remaining here and there in the
more northern parts of Scotland, while the rest extend their
migration.

In the Outer Hebrides it is seen early in summer, and
generally departs in October, although I have seen indi-
viduals there in November. Previous to the commencement
of the breeding season, and after the young are fledged, it
resorts to the shores of the sea, frequenting pools of brackish
water at the head of the sandfords, and the shallow margins
of bays and creeks. Its habits are very similar to those of
the Redshank, with which it associates in autumn. It is
extremely sliy and vigilant, insomuch that one can very
seldom shoot it, unless after it has deposited its eggs,
^fany individuals remain during the summer, when they arc
to be found by the lakes in the interior, of Mhich the number
in Uist, Harris, and Lewis is astonishing. At that season
it is very easily discovered, for when one is perhaps more
than a quarter of a mile distant, it rises into the air with
clamorous cries, alarming all the birds in its neighbourhood,
flies round the place of its nest, now wheeling off to a
distance, again advancing, and at intervals alighting by the
edge of the lake, Avhen it continues its cries, vibrating its
body all the while.

I once found a nest of this bird in the island of Harris.
It was at a considerable distance from a small hike, and
consisted of a few fragments of heath and some blades of
grass, placed in a shallow cavity scraped in the turf, in an
exposed ]dace. — that is, on a slight eminence, — covered
chiefly with moss, lichens, and some carices and short heath.

GREEN-LEGGED LONGSHANK. oS6

The nest, in fact, resembled those of the Golden I'lovcr,
Lapwing, and Curlew. The eggs, i)laced with their narrow
ends together, were four in number, pyrif(^rm, larger than
these of tlie La])wiiig, and smaller than those of the Golden
Plover, equally pointed with the latter, but proportionately
broader and more rounded at the larger end than those of
either. The dimensions of one of them, still in my collection,
are two inches exactly, by one inch and three-eighths. The
ground colour is a very pale yellowish-green, sprinkled all
over with irregular spots of dark brown, intermixed with
blotches of light ])urplish-grey, the spots, and especially the
blotches, more numerous on the larger end. Although in
summer these birds may be seen in many parts of these
islands, they are yet very rare, a pair being to be met with
only at an interval of several miles.

These observations made many years ago, I communi-
cated to a foreign ornithologist, by whom they were ])ub-
lished in 18o5. In the following spring Mr. Selby, in liis
List of Birds Inhabiting the County of Sutherland, gave the
following statement : — " The Greenshauk, whose nest had
never before been found in Britain, Ave detected breeding in
various parts of the country, generally in some swampy
marsh, or by the margin of some of its numerous lochs. It
is very wild and wary, except when it has tender young, at
■which time, "svhen first disturbed, it sometimes approaches
pretty near, making a rapid stoop, like the Redshank, at the
head of the intruder. If fired at and missed, which is fre-
quently the case, even by a good marksman, as the stoop is
made with remarkable rapidity, it seldom, at least for that
day, ventures again within range. A pair which had their
nest in a marsh near Tongue, after being once fired at, could
not again be approached ; but we obtained one of tlic young,
apparently about a fortnight old, by means of a water-dog.
Another pair were shot near Scourie, by the margin of a
small loch, where, from their violent outcries and alarm, they
evidently had their nest or young, though we Avere unable to
find either."

In ordinary circumstances, the Greenshank searches the
shores, in muddy places, for food, often walking out into the

.124 GLOTTIS CHLOROPUS.

water until it readies nearly to the tarsal joint. It generally
advances with rapidity, running rather than walking, and
almost continually vibrating its hody. On being disturbed
it stands with upraised neck, emits a succession of loud and
shrill cries, and, though there should be little danger, flies
off to a distance'. Its flight is rapid, gliding, and devious,
and it alights abruptly, runs to some distance, stands and
vibrates. Its food no doubt consists of wonns and small
sliells ; but I have neglected to take note of the contents of
the stomach of the few individiuils whicli I have examined.

It appears from the accounts of aiithors, to be very ex-
tensively dispersed. Skins of it are very common in collec-
tions from India and its islands ; and it has been found on
the coast of the United States of North America.

Young. — Young birds have the feathers of the fore part
of the back, the scapulars, and the larger secondary coverts,
margined with brownish-black spots with the edge white,
the upper tail coverts and tail barred with brown, the lower
wing coverts and axillar feathers greyish-white, marked with
gi-ey in bands parallel to the margin ; the other parts nearly
as in the adult in winter.

325

TOTANUS. TATLER.

Tup: Tatlcrs arc very nearly allied to the Longshanks and
WcetAvects, between Avliieh they may he considered as in most
respects intermediate. Their general habits and food are
similar, although they present some peculiarities, and several
of the species are so similar to the latter birds, that they might
be placed in either genus. Their body is ovate and rather
slender, their neck slender and longish, their head small,
oblong, and compressed, with the forehead considerably
rounded.

liill about a third longer than the head, straight, very
slender, soft and flexible at the base, hard and elastic at the
end. Upper mandible with the dorsal line straight, the
ridge convex, the sides grooved to beyond the middle, after-
Avards convex, the edges thick with a linear groove, the tip
slightly declinate, narrowed, blunt, and a little exceeding the
other ; lower mandible with the angle long and extremely
narrow, the sides gi'ooved to the middle, afterwards convex,
the dorsal outline straight or slightly concave, the edges thick
Avith a linear groove, the tip narrowed and a little obtuse.
The gape-line straight. Throat very narrow.

Both mandibles internally Avith a very narrow and dee])
groove ; palate with a double row of papilla?. Posterior aper-
ture of the narcs linear, margined Avitli papilla?. Tongue
linear, emarginate at the base Avith three lateral papillie,
channelled above, acute. Oesophagus narroAV, and Avithout
dilatation ; proventriculus Avith oblong glandules ; gizzard
rather large, oblong, Avith very poAverful distinct muscles, its
inner coat rugous. Intestine long ; coeca of moderate length,
cylindrical.

Nostrils small, linear, pervious, basal, close to the margin.
Eyes rather small ; both eyelids closely feathered. Aperture
of ear rather small, roundish. Feet long, A^ery slender ; tibia

326 TOTANUS. TATLER.

bare to a considerable extent ; tarsus with niuncrous broad
scutella anteriorly, blunt and scutellate behind; toes small ;
the anterior flattened beneath and marginate ; first very small
and elevated ; lateral toes about equal, connected with the
third by a basal web, of which the outer is larger. Chnvs
small, compressed, slightly curved, obtuse.

Plumage moderately full, very soft, rather blended, and
glossy above. Wings long and pointed ; quills about twenty-
five ; primaries tapering, obtuse, the first longest ; secon-
daries short, incurved, but the inner elongated, one of them
not much shorter than the third primary when the Aving is
closed. Tail short, straight, rounded, of twelve narrow,
rounded feathers.

The Tatlers are birds of small or moderate size. Their
long, slender legs, and rather short flattened and marginate
toes, correspond with their habit of running on the mud or
sand of the shores of the sea, of lakes, or of streams. Their
long, slender bill, elastic and hardened towards the end,
enables tliem to pick up small or minute objects from the
surface, as Avell as from beneath it. Their food consists of
insects, larvce, worms, mollusca, and Crustacea, along with
wliich they swallow sand and gravel. All the species are
remarkable for the vibratory or balancing motion of their
body, which is especially observable Avlien they are alarmed,
or utter their cries, which are loud, shrill, and generally
reiterated. They are mostly of solitary habits, and are ex-
tremely shy, and in danger clamorous. Their flight is rapid,
somewhat undulated, and as if vacillating. They moult
twice in the year, but generally undergo little alteration of
colour. Their nest is a slight hollow, generally among sand,
gravel, or stone, sometimes among the herbage ; their eggs
four, very large, pyriform, spotted. The young, at first
covered Avith longish down, run about from the first, and
conceal themselves by squatting, the old birds exhibiting
much anxiety for their safety, as expressed by their hurried
desultory flight and clamorous cries. Some species of the
genus are found in all parts of the globe. Four are reckoned
inhabitants of this country ; but of these only one is common
or generally distributed.

TOTANUS. TATLER. o'JT

ForiiKMlv, when the gouorii Trin^^a and Totanus were
united, the species composin<^ tlicm were desij^nated in
Enj^lish by the generic name 8and})ii)cr. That name being
with pro])riety assigned to Tringa, it l)eeomes necessary to
apply anotlier to Totanus ; and I can find none more apph-
cable than that of Tatler, eniph)yed by Mr. Nuttall. It is
true that term is appHcabk^, in a greater or less degree, to
other genera ; but so is Sandpiper, as well as almost any
other expressive of any circumstance relative to their form
or habits.

328

TOTANUS FUSCUS. THE DUSKY REDSHANK
TATLER.

SPOTTED SNIPE. SPOTTED REDSHANK. KED-LEGGED GODWIT. C.\:«BRIDGE
GODWIT. DUSKY S.VNUPIPEK. DUSKY SNIPE. DUSKY IIEDSH.ANK.

Scolopax fusca. Linn. Syst. Xat. I. 243.

Scolopax fusca. Lath. Ind. Ornith. II. 724. Summer.

Tringa atra. Lath. lud. Ornith. II. 738. Summer.

Scolopax Cantabrigiensis. Lath. Ind. Ornith. II. 72L Winter.

Scolopax Curonica. Lath. Ind. Ornith. II. 724. "Winter.

Scolopax Totanus. Lath. Ind. Ornith, II. 721. Young.

Cambridge Godwit. Mont. Ornith. Diet.

Spotted Snipe. Mont. Ornith. Diet, and Supplt.

Chevalier Arlequin. Totanus fuscus. Temm. Jfan. d'Omith. II. 639.

Totanus fuscus. Flem. Brit. Anim. 102.

Dusky Sandpiper. Totanus fuscus. Selby, Illustr. II. 69.

'J'otanus fuscus. Dusky Sandpiper. Jen. lirit. Yert. Anini. 196.

Totanus fuscus. Bonap. Comp. List, 51.

Adidt ii'ith the basal half of the hill red, the other half
hrotmish-hlack ; the feet orange-red ; the secondarxj quills
black, barred with tvhite. In winter the upper part of the
head and hind-neck hrou'nish-grey ; the fore part of the bach
greyish-brown, streaked with dusky, its hind part white; the
tail and its coverts barred icith white and dusky ; the cheeks
and fore-neck greyish-white, faintly streaked with grey; the
rest of the loiccr parts tchite. In summer the head, neck, and
lower parts greijish -black, the feathers slightly edged with
>rhitish ; those of the fore part of the back and the wing-
rorerts blackisJi-brown, marginally spotted icith black and
xrhite ; the other parts as in icinter. Young with the base of
the upper mandible dusky ; the feet orange; the upper parts
blackish-brown, the feathers edged with triangular white
s/fots ; the hind part (f the back white, streaked with dusky.

DUSKY REDSHANK TATLETl. :i29

Male. — This species, which is of rare occurrence in
Britain, may be coin])ar('(l to the Grey IMovcr as to si/e,
altliough of a more slender form, huviu|^ the hocly com])act,
the neck rather eh)iigate(l, tlie head oblon<2;, compressed,
rounded ahove, and rather small. The hill is lon<;, ex-
ceeding,^ the head by about two-thirds, very slender, tapering,
compressed, and straight, or having a very slight inclina-
tion upwards. The upper mandible has the dorsal line
straight, the ridge convex, a little flattened at the base,
the nasal groove extending a little beyond the middle,
the sides then convex, the end enlarged in a very slight
degree, the tip narrowed, obtuse, and a little declinate.
The lower mandible with the intercrural space and lateral
grooves extending as far as the nasal grooves of the
upper, the dorsal line straight, the tip narrow and rather
acute.

The nostrils are small, two-twelfths in length, linear,
basal. The eyes are also small, their aperture measuring
nearly three-twelfths. The legs are long and very slender ;
the tibia bare for nearly an inch; the tarsus compressed,
W'ith about thirty anterior and a greater number of posterior
scutella. The hind toe is very small and elevated, with six
scutella ; the anterior toes rather short, distintly marginate,
flattened beneath, with two basal webs, of which the outer
is larger ; the second toe with twenty scutella, the third
thirty, the fourth twenty-eight. The claws are small, com-
pressed, laterally grooved, slightly curved, acute.

The plumage is very soft, blended, on the back and
wings compact and glossy ; the feathers oblong, narrow,
and rounded. The wings are long, pointed, with twenty-
flve quills ; the primaries tapering, the first longest, the
second a little shorter, the rest rapidly decreasing; the
secondaries incurvate and rounded, the inner elongated and
tapering. The tail short, and doubly emarginate.

The bill is brownish-black, with the basal half of the
lower mandible yellowish-red, and that of the upper similar,
but of a darker tint. The irides are brown. The feet
yellowdsh-red ; the claws black. The upper part of the
head, the hind part and sides of the neck are dull light

:?oO TOTANUS FUSCUS.

brownish -^oy ; the fore part of the back luid the scapulars
glossy greyish-brown : as are the inner secondaries and the
wing-covcrts, -which are margined with alternate spots of
dark brown and white. The rest of the back is pure white ;
the tail and its u])per coverts white, barred with greyish-
black, the two middle feathers tinged with brown. The
outer primaries are blackish-brown, paler on the inner web ;
the shaft of the first white ; the inner five primaries white
toward the end, barred with dusky ; the secondaries barred
with dusky and white, forming one of the best distinctive
characters of tlie species ; these quills being in Tetanus fuscus
dusky for half their length, and then wliite; the inner
secondaries like the back. A white streak from the bill to
the eye ; a dusky loral band. The cheeks and fore part of
the neck are greyish-Avhite, with faint grey markings; the
rest of the lower parts white.

Length to end of tail 12 inches; extent of wings 23;
wing from flexure 6| ; tail 3 ; bill along the ridge 2-j%,
along the edge of lower mandible 2-^; bare part of tibia 1 ;
tarsus 2^; hind toe -pj, its claw -^•, second toe \^, its
claw -^; third toe 1^, its claw -^; fourth toe 1-fL, its
claw ^.

Female in Winter. — The female differs only in being a
little larger.

Length to end of tail 12|^ inches ; extent of wings 24 ;
bill 2j ; tarsus 'i^-^; middle toe 1^, its claw -^.

Male in Simmek. — Although in winter this species so
closely resembles the next as to be with difficulty distin-
guishable, the ease is very different in summer, when the
plumage of the head, neck, fore part of the back, and all the
lower })arts assiniu^ a uniform greyish-black tint ; tlie scapu-
lars and wing-coverts brownish-black, margined with black
and white spots ; the quills, tail-feathers, tail-coverts, and
hind part of the back as in winter. The feathers of the
breast and abdomen are very narrowly edged Avith greyish-
white, and the lower tail-coverts barred witli white. The
bill and feet are coloured as in winter.

DUSKY REDSHANK TATLER. ."{•Jl

Female in Summer. — The female differs from the mah,'
only in size.

Habits. — Not havinf^ met with this bird alive, nor even
having examined a recently killed and entire specimen, tlie
above descriptions being taken from skins, and the works of
Temminck, Selby, Montagu, and Gould, I am unable to
present an original account of its manners and distribution.
It is said, or rather supposed, to breed in the arctic regions,
and to appear on the coasts of Europe in the course of its
migrations. M. T(>mminck asserts that the species is abso-
lutely the same in North America ; but neither it nor the
next species is admitted into the Fauna of that continent by
those who have submitted its winged inhabitants to the
most careful examination. It is also reported by him to
occur in Bengal. In Europe it has been traced from Scan-
dinavia to Denmark, Holland, France, Spain, Switzerland,
and Italy. Its habits, in so far as they are known, are
similar to those of the next species, tlie places to which it
resorts being the muddy and sandy shores of the seas, rivers,
and lakes or marshes ; and its food consisting of worms,
mollusca, and insects. In Britain, although many indi
viduals have been obtained, it is of rare occurrence. Corn-
wall, Devonshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, North-
umberland, Cumberland, and Anglesey are mentioned as
having afforded specimens. It appears to be more frequent
in autumn than in spring, and in summer to be extremely
rare. Being in its winter plumage so very similar to the
next species, it is very likely to be often confounded
Avith it.

YoTJNG. — When they appear on our coasts in autumn,
the young are as follows : — The basal half of the lower man-
dible is red, that of the upper dusky ; the rest of the bill
brownish-black. The feet light orange-red ; the claws
dusky. The upper part of the head and the hind-neck are
light brownish-grey, the feathers edged with greyish-white ;
the fore part of the back blackish-brown ; the scapulars,
wing-coverts, and inner secondary quills of a darker tint, all

;532 TOTA^'US FUSCUS.

the feathers edged Avitli larf^e triangular white spots and
intervening blackish bars. The quills brownish-black, the
secondaries and inner primaries marginally spotted with
white. The hind part of the back white, streaked with
dusky ; the tail-coverts and tail-feathers white, the latter
tinged with grey, barred with blackish-giey. The loral
band dusky, the space above it white ; the fore part of the
neck, the breast, and sides giryish-white with faint undu-
lating transverse lines of greyish-brown ; the rest of the
lower parts white ; but tlie marginal wing-coverts dusky,
and the lower tail-coverts barred with grey.

333

TOTANUS CALIDRIS. THE CO:\[MOX REDSHANK

TATLER.

POOL SNIPE. SANDCOCK. REDSHANK. RED-LEGGED SNIPE.

Fig. 28,

Scolopax Calidris. Liun. Syst. Nat. I. 245.

Tringa Gambetta. Linn. Syst. Xat. I. 248.

Scolopax Calidris. Lath. Ind. Ornith. II. 722.

Tringa Gambutta. Lath. lud. Ornith. II. 728.

Tringa striata. Lath. Ind. Ornith. II. 733. Young.

Chevalier Gambctte. Totanus Calidris. Temm. Man. d'Ornilh. II. (513.

Totanus Calidris. lledshauk. Flum. Brit. Anim. 102.

Redshank Sandpiper. Totanus Calidris. Selb. Illustr. II. 72.

Totanus Calidris. llcdshank Sandpiper. Jenyns, Brit. Vert. xViiim. 19G.

Totanus Calidris. Bonap. Comp. List. ^L

Adult 7vith the basal half of the bill red, (he other half
bi'owfiish -black; the feet orange-red ; the secondary quills
black at the base, ichite toward the end. In tvinter the upper
part of the head and hind-neck brovjnish-grey ; the fore part
of the back greyish-bi'oicn, streaked with dusky, its hind pari
white; the tail and its cocerts barred with white and dusky
grey ; the fore part and sides of the neck pale grey, streaked
with dusky, as are the sides; the rest of the lower parts
tohite. In summer the cheeks and fore-neck grcyish-wJiitc,

:J34 TOTANl'S CALIDRIS.

streaked icith (lusJxij ; the rest of the loicer parts tchite, the
sides icith angular dushij marJiings ; the tipper parts of a
deeper tint than in icinter. Young with the base of the
upper mandible dushy ; the feet orange; the upper parts
brown, the feathers margined xoith yellowish; the hind part
of the back white, but streaked with dusky.

Male. — This species, usually named the Common Red-
shank, is about equal in size to the Golden Plo\ er, but less
robust than that bird, being of a slender and delicate form,
with the neck rather elongated, the head oblong, compressed,
rather small, and rounded above. The bill is long, exceed-
ing the head by about a half, very slender, tapering, com-
pressed, and almost perfectly straight, being very slightly
bent upwards. The upper mandible has the dorsal line
straight, the ridge convex, a little flattened at the base, the
nasal groove extending a little beyond the middle, the sides
then convex, the end enlarged in an almost imperceptible
degree, the tip narrowed, obtuse, a little declinate, and ex-
ti-nding beyond the lower. The inteicrural space and lateral
i^rooves of the lower mandible extend as far as the nasal
grooves of the upper, its dorsal line is straight, and it giadu-
allv narrows to the point, which is rather acute. Internally
both mandibles present a narrow and deep groove, their
sides being thick, and marked with a depressed line. The
tongue is narrow, emarginatc and pap'illate at the base,
grooved above, acute, and an inch in length. The fauces
are very narrow ; the oesophagus five inches and a half long,
with an average width of three-twelfths of an inch ; the pro-
AiMitriculus seven-twelfths long, its glandules cylindrical.
The stomach is of an irregular elliptical form, compressed,
eleven-twelfths of an inch long, nine-twelfths in breadth ;
its muscles very large, its inner coat rugous. T1k> intestine
is thirty-two inches long, and varies in width from four-
twelfths to two-twelfths and a half. The ca^ca, which arise
at the distiince of two inclies from the end, are cylindrical,
two inclies and a (quarter in length, and two-twelfths in
width.

The nostrils are linear and small, being only t\>o-twelfths

COMMON REDSHANK TATLER. 33.5

in length. The eyes are also small, their aperture measuring
two-twelfths and a half. That of the ear is elliptieal, and
three-twelfths long. The legs are long and very slender ;
the tihia bare for nearly three-fourths of an inch ; the tarsus
compressed, with thirty anterior, and ahout forty posterior
scutella. The hind toe is very small and elevated, with six
scutella ; the anterior toes are rather short, distinctly mar-
ginate, flatt(>ned beneath, with two basal webs, of which the
outer is larger, but does not extend as far as the second joint
of the outer toe ; the second toe with twenty-four, the third
thirty, the fourth thirty scutella. The claws are small, com-
pressed, laterally grooved, slightly curved, obtuse.

The plumage is very soft, blended, on the back and wings
glossy ; the feathers oblong, narrow, and rounded, those on
the fore part of the head short. The wings are long, pointed,
of twenty-five quills ; the primaries tapering, the first longest,
the second two-twelfths of an inch shorter, the rest ra])idly
decreasing ; the secondaries short, incurvate, and rounded,
the inner elongated and tapering, one of them reaching to
about three-fourths of an inch from the tip of the longest
primary, when the wing is closed. The tail is short, and
doubly emarginate, but only in a slight degi'ee.

The bill is brownish-black, with the basal half of the
lower mandible yellowish-red, and that of the up])er similar,
but of a duller tint. The irides are brown. The feet
yellowish-red ; the claws black. The upper part of the
head, and the hind part and sides of the neck, are dull light
brownish-grey ; the fore part of the back and the scapulars
are glossy greyish-brown ; as are the inner secondaries and
the wing-coverts, which are for the most part margined
with small dusky spots having the interspaces grey. The
rest of the back is pure white ; the tail and its upper coverts
white, barred with greyish-bliick, the two middle feathers
tinged with brown. The number of dark bars on the tail is
fifteen. The outer primaries are blackish-brown, paler on
the inner web ; the shaft of the first white ; the inner five
primaries white toward the end, barred and dotted Avith
dusky ; the secondaries, except the inner, black at the base,
with the rest white, a few of the inner barred or spotted

336 T0T.\:NT'S CALIDIIIS.

with black ; the inner elongated secondaries, Avhich are
coloured like the hack, have also their margins spotted Avith
dusky. The primary coverts are brownish-black ; the secon-
dary coverts are greyish-brown, white at the end, and barred
Avith dusky. The sides of the head are light brownish-grey,
streaked with darker giey ; the lore of a deei)er tint ; and a
pale band over the eye. The throat is whitish ; but the
sides and fore part of the neck, and the sides of the breast,
are pale gi'ey, each feather with a slender medial streak of a
deeper colour ; the rest of the lower parts white ; but tlie
feathers of the hind part of the sides and the lower tail-
coverts barred with dusky grey.

Length to end of tail 11 j inches ; extent of wings ~1 ;
wing from flexure G^ ; tail 2-|-| ; bill along the ridge l-j%,
along the edge of lower mandible 1-j^ ; bare part of tibia \^ ;
tarsus 1-^ ; hind toe jV, its claw -fj ; second toe \^, its claw
-fL ■ third toe l-j3j, its claw -^ ; fourth toe l^V? its claw ^.

Female in Winter. — The female, Avhich is a little
larger than the male, presents no external characters by
which she may be distinguished.

Length to end of tail 12^ inches ; extent of wings 2'3 ;
bill along the ridge 1-^, along the edge of lower mandible
1-j^ ; wing from flexure Qj ; tail 3 ; tarsus l\^ ; first toe -fV,
its claw -fj; second toe \^, its claw -j^^; third toe l-j2j, its
claw -j3^; fourth toe Yk, its claw -^.

In another individual the length is 12|- inches; extent
of wings 23; bill along the ridge l-j^; wing from flexure^
6]4 ; tail -fV ; bare part of tibia \^ ; tarsus 1 1^ ; middle toe
I,^, its claw -fV.

Variations. — Adult individuals vary little in colour,
unless in the degree of distinctn(>ss of the dusky marking>.
The wing-coverts and scapulars are always more or less
margined with dark spots. Many individuals have the
upper parts of the head and neck quite free of dusky streaks,
and the hind part of the back purely white. Considerable
differences in size are observed.

COMMON REDSHANK TATLKll. 337

Changes of Plumage. — In sprinji^ a chan<ro of plumage
takes place, in consequence ol" which the birtls pri'scnt the
following" appearances ; —

Male in Simmer. — The hill and feet arc coloured as in
winter, but with the red of a somewhat brighter tint. Tlie
head and hind part of tlie neck arc of a darker tint than in
winter, as are the back and wings ; the scapulars, wing-
coverts, and inner secondaries margined with decided
brownish-black spots or bars, alternating with \\liite. The
sides of till' head and neck are greyij^h-white, with dusky
streaks, as is the fore ])art of the ni'ck ; on the sidi-s the
markings are angular, or in the iorm of bars ; tlie middle of
the breast and the abdonu'n j)ure wliite ; the other parts
nearly as in winter. The ])rincij)al difierence, then, in
summer is, that the lower parts are white or less shaded
with grey, and marked with decided dusky streaks, spots,
and angular bars.

Female in Simmer. — The fenuile shows no remarkable
difference in colour.

Habits. — In the northern parts of Scotland this species
is not very frequently met w ith in winter, unless in particu-
lar localities ; but in the southern, especially along the firths
and inlets, and on the coasts of England, it is not uncommon,
although seldom anywhere very abundant. From the middle
of autumn to the end of spring, it is to be found in suitable
places along the shores, seldom in flocks, indeed rarely in
greater numbers than two or three together. They may,
however, occasionally congregate in ])articularly favourable
situations. Thus, a Avriter in the Naturalist says they are
very numerous in Dublin Bay, where so many as two
hundred may sometimes be seen in a flock. ]}ut it is perhaps
not (piite certain that the birds were of this species, as they
exhibited a kind of action which I have not observed in it.
These Irish Redshanks, it is said, " dart their bills into the
sand nearly its whole length, by jumping up, and thus giving
it a sort of impetus by the weight of their bodies pressing it

338 TOTANUS CALIDRIS.

down-wards." Muddy shores at the mouths of rivers, shallow
pools left by the tide, and the sands in rocky creeks, are its
favourite places of resort. Its food consists of insects, worms,
small Crustacea, and mollusca, which it picks from the sur-
face, frequently wading for that puqjose up to the ancles. It
also prol.-es the mud and soft sand in the manner of the Dun-
lin. Much more vigilant and sus])icious than the Sandpipers
and Plovers, it does not allow a person to apjiroacli within
shot, hut, on his advancinf;, lirst exhibits its alarm by run-
ninu' about, ])iv()ting its body incessantly, and uttering its
shrill cries, and then flies off, repeating its screams in a series
of sharp notes, and alarming all the birds in the neighbour-
hood. Its flight is light, ra})id, wavering, and as if unde-
eid(Hl, and being ])erformed by quick jerks of the wings,
bears some resemblance to that of a pigeon. Alighting
again at a great distance, along the edge of the water, it runs
a short way, stands, vibrates its body, utters its cry, and thus
continues until its alarm has subsided. It runs with great
celerity, and is in every way remarkable for its activity,
which becomes almost ludicrous when it is picking up its
food on a beach Avashed by a high surf, its movements being
then executed with astonishing rapidity, as it follows the
retiring and retreats before the advancing waves.

In summer it is found near the heads of the unfrequented
creeks, among fens or salt-marshes, and not unfrequently
by pools and lakes, not far from the sea, but often also in
the interior. At this season should a person come within a
(|uarter of a mile of its habitation, it is sure to greet him
with its clamorous cries, and to advance towards him on
wing, wheeling round, gliding to either side, and exhibit-
ing its alarm lest he should discover its nest or young. I
have found it breeding in the Hebrides, but not in great
numbers. Mr. Selby met with it in summer on the marshy
margin of Loch Doulich, near Lairg, and at the head of Loch
Naver, in Sutlicrlandshire. Here and there it may be seen
in the middle and southern districts of Scotland, especially
in the former, in many tracts of which it is common. In the
mai sh( s of the eastern parts of England it also frequently
breeds, according to the statements of various observers.

COMMON IlEDSIIANK TATLER. 339

The iicst, which is phifcd on u tuft in marshy <^r()un(l, or on
a dry S])ot in a meadow, is composed of u few hUukvs of ;^rass
cuvolcssly arranged in a shj^ht hollow. The eg-!^s, four in
numhcr, are pyriform, an inch and seven-twelfths in length,
an inch and two-twelfths in hreadth, pale greenish-grey,
spotted and hlotched with reddish-hrown and hlackish-hrown.
The young, which I have never met with, are said to have
the hack of the neck without feathers, like that of the I>it-
tern, and usually to keep the head sunk hack hetween the
shoulders.

The flesh of this hird is not inferior as an article of food
to that of the Godwits and Sandpipers. It is not unfre-
quently seen in the markets.

In the eastern parts of the middle divisions of Scotland,
it is hy no means a very rare hird at any season of the year.
In summer it is found among fens or salt-marshes ahout the
mouths of some of the rivers; the Ythan, for example, above
Newhurgh, where gTeat numbers breed. It is also to be seen
by lakes and about marshes in the interior, as at the upper
end of the Loch of Skene, and even in the midst of the
central mountains, as by Loch Muic and Loch Callader.
It leaves the interior in the end of July or the beginning of
August, and returns in the beginning of April. On the 'iod
of that month, in LS-tO, I observed very large flocks at the
upper end of the Montrose Basin, where they were feeding
along with Knots and Dunlins. On the 2Gth I saw more
than forty individuals, mostly in pairs, dispersed along the
shingly and flat sea coast extending from John's Haven to
Gurdon, in Kincardineshire. In such places, it is scarcely
possible to obtain a shot, for, although they often fly up to
an intruder, and sweep around, reiterating their shrill cries,
they keep at a safe distance.

Mr. Burnett informs me that they arrive in his neigh-
bourhood, on the river Don, during the last week of March,
coming in small parties or singly, and resting on the shingly
margins till they become numerous, when, after three weeks
or a month, they disperse, and resort to low marshy spots.
" In such places and on soft moors they arc very nmnerous,
and reside togetlier with the Common Snipe. The lied-

■6i0 TOTANUS CALIDRIS.

shank has a rapid short whistle, and also repeats a clicking
note. It is very shy, though in the breeding season it flies
in wide circles round one's liead. I have seen it perch on a
paling rail. The nests, I think, must be covered up, other-
wise I cannot understand how they are so seldom found.
For all my searching last season, I could And but one —
April 22nd. It was on a strip of mud between two pools,
and formed of fragments of equiseta, with but little of hollow
visible. There were only three eggs ; but they had not
been sat upon, and probably one would have been added.
The Redshanks feed much upon caddis-cases, and discharge
the straws in pellets, commonly found in their haunts."

In Ireland, according to Mr. Thompson, it " is common
around the coast; but a small proportion only of those seen
during the autumn and winter breed in the island." This is
jnobably the case in Scotland also. In some parts of Ireland,
the Redshanks usually breed, as is stated by the same emi-
nent naturalist, on the shingly beaches of sea islands. I
have not heard of its doing so with us ; but circumstances
induce so many changes in the habits of some birds, that
there is nothing surprising in the fact. Mr. St. John says : —
" Tlie Redshank does not breed on the stones or bare ground,
but in some spot of rough grass ; their motions are very
curious at this time of the year, as they run along with great
swiftness, clajiping their wings together audibly above their
licads, and flying about, round and round any intruder with
rapid jerks, or hovering in the air like a hawk, all the time
uttering a loud and peculiar whistle. They lead their young
to the banks of any pool or ditch at hand, and tliey conceal
themselves in the holes and corners close to the waters'
edge."

YouNCi. — When fully fledged, the young have the basal
half of the lower mandible dull reddish ; the feet orange, the
claws dusky. The upper i)art of tlie head greyish-brown, the
feathers edged with wliitish ; the hind part of the neck grey ;
the fore part of the back, the scapulars, and inner secondaries
greyish-brown, the feathers margined with an midulated band
of vellowish-white ; tlie smaller win<r coverts similar, but

COMMON REDSHANK TATLER. 341

barred with dusky on the edges ; tlio (juills as in the adults,
as is the tail ; the hind part of the back white, with dusky
.streaks. The sides of the head, the sides and fore part of
the neck, the fore part of the breast, and the sides of the
body, are light grey, streaked with dusky ; the hind ])art
of the sides, and the lower tail-coverts undulated or barred
with the same.

Progress towaiid Matirity. — The difference between
the young and the adult not being remarkable, it is unneces-
sary to enter into the minute details by which they may be
distinguished. Old birds are recognised by their having the
base of their bills bright red, the hind part of the back pure
white, and the lower parts of a lighter tint than in the
young.

Remarks. — This species may in all stages be distin-
guished from Totanus fuscus by the secondary quills, which
are white in their terminal half. The specific character
given by M. Temniinck to Totanus fuscus, viz. — base of the
lower mandible red ; rump pure white ; upper tail-coverts
banded with white and dusky, is precisely applicable to the
present species, and therefore apt to deceive.

The next two species are of a more slender fonn. Their
bills are like those of Totanus Calidris, but more slender;
their toes longer, but their basal webs much smaller.

C42

TOTANUS OCHROrUS. THE GREEN TATLER.

CUKEN SANUriPEH.

Trinira ochropus. Linn. Syst. Xat. I. 250.

Tiinjja ochropus. Latli. Ind. Orn. II. 729.

GivL'ii Sandpiper. Mont. Orn. Diet, and ^iipplt.

Chevalier eul-bianc. Tolanus ochropus. Tenini. Man. d'Om. II. Gol.

Totanus ochropus. Green Sandpiper. Flem. Brit. Anim. 103.

Green Sandpiper. Totanus ochropus, Selb. lihistr. Brit. Ornith. II. 75.

Totanus ochropus. Green Sandpiper. Jen. Lrit. Vert. An. 197.

Totanus ochropus. Bonap. Conip. List, 51.

Tiiil ncdrhj cvoi, irliite, the fuur middle feathers with
three JihiekisJt-Jjroicii bars toinird t]u' end, the outermost
featlier plain; upper part of liead and hlnd-neelc hrouiilsh-
(jren ; haek, scapulars, and Inner secondaries grfcnlsh-hrou-n,
irlth mariilital wJiltlsh and dushi/ spots; neck (irejjlsJi-u-Jtlte,
nltJt longitudinal dnshy lines; the breast and abdomen nlilte ;
loner u-lnfj-corerts, axlllars, and some of the hijpoehondrlal
feathers an(jularhi barred ultlt broun ; bill dushi/ above,
reddl>i}i beneath; j'eet greylslt-blne, tinged u'ltlt green.

Male. — This very elegant s]]ccics is much hirgcr than
the Cominoii or White-bveasted Woct-wect, "which it however
chiscly rosemhk'S in form and jjroportions, the body being
ovate and rather ehjngatcd ; the neck slender and rather
long ; the head small, oblong, and compressed. The bill is
straiglit, very slender, with the nasal groove extending
beyond tlic middle, the upper mandible a little declinate at
the tip, tlie lower straight. The legs are rather long and
very slender ; the tibia bare for eight-twelfths of an inch;
the tarsus compressed and slender, with thirty-four anterior
and thirty-six posterior scutella. The anterior toes are long,
very slender, and marginate ; the outer longer than the

GREEX TATLl-.R. 343

iiiiuT, and connoctc;! witli the middh; to:- by a pretty lar"-o
basal web; the hind toe very small and el('vat(>d, with eiirht
scutella; the second with twenty-five, the third with thirty-
two, the fourth with thirty. The claws arc small, declinatc-
arcuate, compressed, rather l)lunt

The plninaj^c is extremely soft, on the ])ack and wiii;;s
glossy. The win^s when closc-d extend to two-twelfth, of
an inch from tlie tip of the tail, and are narrow, of twenty-
five quills, of which the first is hjiij^est. The tail is rather
short, slightly cmarg-inate, and at the sides a little njunded.

Th- bill is dusky above, reddish below ; tlie eyes dusky ;
the feet greyish-blue, tinged with green, cs])ecially on the
heel, or hind jjart of the tibio-tarsal joint, ;ind the sole ; the
claws brownish-black. The upper part of the h(>ad and
the hind-neck are brownish-grey ; the back, scapulars, and
inner secondaries greenish-brown, with marginal whitish and
dusky spots; the feathers of the rump white toward the
end; the tail-coverts white, but most of them barred at the
base. The quills, primary and secondary coverts, alula, and
outer snnill coverts blackish-brown; the shaft of the first
quill brown. The lower surface of the quills is a little
paler; the lower coverts dusky brown, tipped and barred
with whitish ; as are the axillar feathers, and a few of the
hypochondrial. A broad white band extends over the eye,
and a narrow dusky band along the lore. The throat is
greyish- white ; the cheeks and fore-nfck greyish-white,
tinged with brown, and longitudinally streaked with dusky.
The breast and all the lower parts of the body, as well as
the rumj), are pure w hite. The tail-feathers arc white, all
excepting the outir barred with blackish-browu ; the four
middle with three bars on both webs and a spot on the outer
web, the next with two bars and a spot, the next with one
bar and a spot, the next with only a spot, and the outermost
plain.

Length to end of tail 10-pV; ext(>nt of wings 17]; tail
2h-; wing from flexure 5-p\ ; bill along the ridge 1^^, along
the edge of lower nnindible 1-j^ ; tarsus ly'-; first toe -^V, its
clawyV; s-cond toL« -i-'l, its claw yV ; tliird toe ||r, its claw
-^ ; fourth toe -[4, its claw -f^.

344 TOTANUS OCHROPUS.

Female. — The female is similar to the male, but some-
what larger.

Length to end of tail 11^; extent of wings 18^; wing
from flexure 5-L^; bill along the ridge 1^^, along the edge of
lower mandible l-j^ ; bare part of tibia yV ; tarsus Ij ; middle
toe l-pr, its claw -^.

The above descriptions are from fresh specimens, both
shot in the south of Scotland — the male in January, 1837;
the female in November, 1835. I have not met with the
bird in summer, and therefore boiTOW its description from
M. Temminck : —

Ai)i i,T IX Simmer. — " The summer plumage differs from
that of winter only in having the upper parts darker and
more glossed with green, in there being a greater number of
small dots on these parts, and in the spots on the fore part
of the neck being guttiform, there being one along the shaft
of each feather."

Habits. — It does not appear that this elegantly formed
bird ever breeds in Britain. In England it is merely a
Avinter visitant, arriving about the middle of September, and
departing toward the end of April. According to Montagu,
it frequents pools and small shallow streams, is solitary, but
sometimes pairs before leaving us ; and when disturbed,
makes a very shrill whistling note as it flies. ]M. Temminck
states that it is dispersed over the greater part of Europe
during its autumnal and vernal migrations ; appears on the
margins of streams, more partioilarly limpid brooks, pretty
often in marshes, and feeds on small Avorms, flies, and other
soft-winged insects. He also informs us that it nestles in
the sand or among the grass near the water, and lays from
three to five eggs of a whitish-green marked with brown
spots. Both Montagu and Mr. Selby have met with it in
August. The latter says : — It runs with great activity,
flirting its tail in tlie same manner as the Common Sand-
l)iper, Totanus hyjiolcucos. AVhen flushed it utters a shrill
wliistle, and generally flies low, skimming over the surface
of tlie water, and following with precision all the bends and

GREEN TATI.F.n. 345

angles of the stream. If is very rarely met \vitli on tlic east
coast of Scotland in aiituiun and spring'. Accordiii";' to the
Xow Statistical Account, it has be* n seen near Montrose.
As it has not, I believe, been ibuiid breedint^- in Scotland,
the followinti- notice with which 1 have been favoured ])y tlie
liev. Mr. Smith is very interestin<;' : — "I saw a beautiful
specimen of the Green Sandpiper, 'J'otanus ochropus, shot,
in July, 18Ji(), on a muddy ri\ulet near to the Loch of
Strathbeg. I am told that it nuiy he fouiul in that locality
almost every summer." Jn Ireland, according to Mr.
Thompson, " it is only known as a rare visitant, hut has
occurred at all seasons of the year.

YouNC. — In autunui the young, according to M. Tem-
minck, " differs only in having all the upper parts of a
lighter tint, with fewer small dots, which have a yellowish
colour ; the nape tinged with grey ; the sides of the breast
coloured like the feathers of the back, and marked with
white spots ; all the fore part of the neck and the middle of
the breast with brown lanceolate spots ; the white space at
the base of the tail of less extent, and the black bars of the
middle feathers broader."

Variations. — The tint of the u])per parts varies con-
siderably, as do the markings on the tail. In an individual
from England, the two middle feathers have four bands, and
on the outer w eb an additional spot ; the next two have two
bands and a spot ; the next a spot only on the outer web ;
the outermost a faint mark on the outer web.

346

TOTANUS GLAREOLA. WOOD TATLER.

^VOOD SANDPIPER.

Tringa Glarcola. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 250.

Tringa Glarcola. Latli. lud. Oin.. II. 730.

Wiiotl Sandijipcr. Mont. Orn. Diet, and Siipplt.

Chevalier Sylvain. Totanus Glarcola. Tenini. Man. d'Ornith. II. 6-54.

Totaniis Glarcola. "Wood Sandpiper. Flcm. Brit. Anini. 103.

"Wood Sandpiper. Totanus Glarcola. Selb. lUustr. II. 77.

Totanus Glnreola. Wood Sandpiper. Jen. Brit. \'crt. An. 19S.

Totanus Glarcola. Bonap. Couip. List, 51.

Tail clouhhj emarginate, wJiitc, all the feathers barred to
the base icith blacJdsli-brou-u, the outermost feather with the
inner neb j^Zrti/f; iippcr part of head grcijish-broicn ; back,
scapulars, and inner secondaries dark pnrjdisli-broicn^ with
marginid n-Jiitish and dusky spots; neck greyish-Khite, with
longitudinal dusky lines; the breast and abdomen white;
lower wing-coverts ditsky, edged witJi u-Jiite; axillar feathers
and some of those of the sides narrowly and irregularly barred
tcitJt brown; bill dusky, greenish at the base; feet greenish-
grey.

Mat.e. — This species is of a still more slender form than
the last, to Avhich it is consideiably inferior in size, and has
the legs proportionally longer. It is so intimately allied,
however, both in form and in colour, to that species, that a
careless observer is very apt to confound the two ; and I
have seen them misnamed, and even an American species,
Totanus chloropygius, mistaken for them. The bill is
straight, very slender, Avith the nasal groove extending
beyond the middle ; the tip of the up])cr mandible a little
declinate, that of the lower straight. The legs are long and

WOOD TATLER. 347

very sloiidcr ; tlie tibiii liarc for tcn-twclflhs of an iiicli ; the
tarsus compressed, \\itli tliirt}-six anterior sciitella. '1 he
anterior toes are lowj;, very sh-iuler, and niarL;inatc ; tlio
outer longer than the inner, and conncetcd ^vilh tlic middle
toe by a ])retty lar<^e basal wvh ; the hind toe very small
and elevated, Avith eii;ht scntella ; tlie second \\ itli twenty-
five, the third witli thirty-two, tlie fourth with tliirty scu-
telhi. 'Ihv claws are small, dcclinate, arcuate, comi)ressed,
rather blunt.

The i)lumai;e is extremely soft, on the back and wings
slii;htlv <ilossed. The win^s, Avhieh when closed extend
nc arly to the end of the tail, are narrow, Avith twenty-five
quills, of which the first is lont^cst. The tail is rather short
and doubly emarginate, the outermost feather beini;- a little
loii<;(r than several of the rest, but nearly a (pnrter of an
inch shorter than the two middle feathers, which are rather
pointed.

The bill is dusky, tinged with oreen in its basal half;
the eyes dusky ; the feet oreenish-j>rey. The u])],er part of
the head is i;reyish-brown, the feathers edited with •greyish-
white ; a broad streak of white from the bill over the eye; a
dusky loral land; the neck all round greyish-white, streaked
with grevish-brown. The back, scapulars, and inner secon-
daries are dark brown, somewhat glossed with pur^jle ; the
feathers edged with white and black s]]ots, the former larger
than those of Totanus ochropus. The quids, primary and
secoiulary coverts, alula, and outer small coverts blackish-
brown ; the first quill with its shaft white. The lower
surface of the quills is a little paler; the lower coverts
dusky, margined with white; the axillar feathers and those
of the upper part of the sides white, narrowly and irregu-
larly barred with brown, the bars not angularly disposed,
nor nearly so broad, as in Totanus ochro])us. The throat is
grevish-wliite ; the breast, abdomen, and lower tail-coverts
white, the latter with a medial brown line ; the hind part of
the rump and the upper tail-covcrts white, the latter marked
along the shafts with brown. The tail is white, barred Avith
dusky in its whole length, there being eight dark bars on
the outer webs of all the feathers, seven on the inner webs

MS TOTANUS GLAREOLA.

of the middle featliers, on the rest fewer, and on the inner
web of the outer none.

Length to end of tail 9 inches ; extent of wings 15 ; bill
along the ridge 1^, along the edge of lower mandible l-^ ;
wing from flexure 5^ ; tail 2^ ; tarsus l^V > hind toe ^;
its claw -fry ; second toe \^, its claw -^ ; third toe l-jV, its
claw -^ ; fourth toe Yk, its claw -fj.

Fem.vle. — The female resembles the male, differing only
in being a little larger.

Variatioxs — The principal variations that occur arc in
the tint of the upper parts, and the size of the spots mar-
oininjif the feathers. The tail varies in the number of bands
on most of the feathers, but those on the outer webs of the
middle and lateral feathers are generally uniform.

Adult in Summer. — " The top of the head and the nape
longitudinally streaked with brown and whitish ; the cheeks,
fore part of the neck, bi'east, and sides nearly pure white,
longitudinally streaked with dark brown ; all the feathers of
the back have a very large black spot in their centre, and on
each side of the webs two whitish spots ; the scapulars on
being raised are found to be marked with broad blackish
bands; the other parts as in winter." — Temminck.

Habits. — This species occurs accidentally, as it were, on
the southern and eastern coasts of England, in the course of
its autumnal and vernal migrations ; and is still less fre-
quently met with than Totanus ochropus, insomuch that I
have never obtained it in a recent state. It is said to be
pretty common in the southern and eastern parts of Europe,
but to be seldom met with in France and Germany. I have
seen specimens from Southern India, and Mr. Selby says he
has some from the Cape of Good Hope. Of its food, general
habits, and nidification nothing is known Avith certainty.

Young. — The young in autumn have the bill as in the
adult ; the feet of a lighter tint. The upper part of the

WOOD TATLKIl. 349

head is ilark brown, tlic featliers narrowly edged with reddisli-
brown ; a broad band of white over the eye, finely streaked
with brown; the throat white; the hind part and sides of
the neck jp-eyish-white, witli brow^n streaks ; the lower j)arts
white; the sides nndulated with Inown, as are the axillar
feathers; the lower tail-coverts with a central brown streak.
The upper parts are dark brown, j^lossed w ith purple ; the
feathers with a veddisli-wliite spot on each side near the
end ; the feathers of the hind part of the back dark greyish-
brown, terminally edged with greyish-white; the rump and
upper tail-coverts white, the latter witli a h)ngitudinal streak
or series of spots of dark brown. The (piills are brownish-
black, the shaft of the first white, and the secondaries ed<red
with yellowish-white. The tail is white, barred witli
brownish-black, the bars less regular than in the adult, and
those of the outer feathers confluent at the base.

Remarks. — There is as close a resemblance betwxvn
Tetanus Glareola of Europe and Tetanus solitarius, other-
wise named Chloropygius, of North America, as between
Scolopax Gallinago and Scolopax ^^'ilsoni of these countries.
A character by Avhich Totanus solitarius may at once be dis-
tinguished is that of the middle tail-feathers being similar to
the back, they being merely spotted with white on the
edges.

As the genus Totanus differs very little from Glottis, so
on the other hand it passes directly into Actitis, of which the
species, having the bill and feet shorter, seem to be very
nearly allied to some species of Tringa.

350

ACTITIS. AVEET-WEET.

TiiK birds Avhich constitute this genus agree Avitli the
Totaui iu their general form ; but differ in having the bill
nut longer than the head, -with the margins of the mandibles
but faintly grooved, and the feet also shorter. The two
genera, however, are most intimately connected. The AVeet-
wcets are very delicately ibrmcd, and of a lively and active
dis]X)sition. Their body is ovate and slender ; their neck of
moderate length ; their head sn.all, oblong, and compressed,
with the forehead rounded.

IJill of the same length as the head, straight, very
slender, soft and flexible at the base, hard and elastic at the
end ; \i])per mandible Avith the dorsal line straight, the ridge
narrow and convex, the sides grooved for three-fourths of its
length, the edges thin and sharp, the tip slightly declinate,
luu rowed, bhnitish, and a little exceeding the other; lower
mandible with the angle long and extremely narrow, the
sides grooved to tlic middle, afterwards convex, the dori^al
outline straight, the edges thick and faintly grooved, the tip
narrowed and somewhat obtuse. The gape-line straight ;
the throat very narrow.

The digestive organs are similar to those of the Totaui ;
as are the organs of sense and the limbs, the feet being pro-
portionally shorter. The plumage is also similar.

The Weet-Aveets arc small migratory birds, which fre-
quent the sandy and muddy margins of lakes, rivers, and
estuaries. They are especially remarkable for the vibratory
motion of their body, and their shrill cries. They feed on
insects, larva?, Avorms, and mollusca ; have a rapid, some-
what iindulated, and vacillatory flight ; and run with great
celerity. Their nest is a slight hollow ; their eggs four, very
large, pyriform, spotted. The young, at flrst covered Avitli
longishdown, run about and conceal themselves by squatting.
Only two species are found in Ihitain : one of them common
and generally distributed ; the other extremely rare, and
properly an American species, of Avhich a f^Av strn^'glers
•omelimes And their Avay to Europe.

3J1

ACTITIS IIYPOLi: UCOS. THE WHITE-BREASTED
WEET-WEET.

COMMON SANUPII'KR. WII.LYWICKET. WATKR JUNKKT. FIDULKIl.

'//^i

iMJ. 29.

Tringa Ilypolcucos. Linn. Sy.st. jS'at. I. 2o0.

Tiinga Ilypoloucos. Lath. Ind. Ornith. IL 734.

Commou Sandpiper. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Chevalier Guigactte. Totanus hypolciicos. Temm. Man. d'Om. IL 657.
Totanus Ilypoloucos. Common Sandpiper. Flem. Brit. Anim. 104.

Common Sandpiper. Totanus Ilypoloucos. Solb. Illustr. II. 8L

Totanus Ilypolcucos. Common Sandpiper. Jeu. Brit. Yert. An. 199.

Actitis Hypoleucos. Bonap. Comp. List, 51.

The hill dnsl-ij; tlic feet (jrccnlsli-fjreij ; upper parta rjlossy
greenish-broivn, transversely handed and undulated with dark
hroicn; lower parts white, excepting the fore part and sides of
neck, which are grei/ish, with faint duski/ lines. Young with
the upper parts lighter, the feathers margined wit]i duskg aiui
reddish; the feet ochraceous.

Male, — This delicate and lively little bird, wliicli in size
scarcely exceeds the Dunlin, exhibits in its form the usual
characters of the genus, its body being rather slender, its

352 ACTITIS HYPOLEUCOS.

legs and neck longish, its head small and compressed. Tho
bill is not much longer than the head, and in all respects
very closely resembles that of the bird named above, beinir
straight, slender, compressed, laterally grooved on both man-
dibles for two- thirds of its length, soft and ilexible. The
tongue is linear, channelled above, emarginate and papillate
at the base, with the tip pointed. The fauces are very nar-
row ; the a'sophagus three inches long, and two-twelfths in
diameter; the gizzard somewhat elliptical, eight-twelfths of
an inch long, its muscles moderately large, its inner coat
rutrous : the intestine fourteen inches in leniith, and varvin"'
in diameter from two and a half to one and a half twelfths.

The eyes are of moderate size ; the aperture of the ear
elliptical, and two and a half twelfths long; the nostrils
linear, pervious, and only one-twelfth long. The tibia is
bare for four-twelfths of an inch ; the tarsus has numerous
anterior and posterior scutella. The hind toe is very small
and elevated ; the anterior toes arc Avebbed at the base, the
inner web much smaller, flattened beneath, and marginate.
The claws are small, compressed, and blunt.

The plumage is soft, blended, glossy and somewhat com-
pact on the upper parts. The wings are long ; the prima-
ries narrowish, the first longest, the second almost equal ;
the secondaries longish, rounded and acuminate, the inner
tapering. The tail is of moderate length, and considerably
rounded.

The bill is dusky above, brownish-gi'ey beneath. The
irides are brown. The feet greyish, tinged with green ; the
claws black. The upper part of the head and the hind neck
are brownish-gi-ey ; an indistinct whitish line passes over the
eye, and the loral space is dusky. The rest of the upper
parts glossy greenish-brown, transversely banded and un-
dulated with dark brown. 8(mie feathers on the edge of the
wing, the margins of the alular feathers, the tips of the pri-
mary and secondary coverts are white. A bar of the same
colour crosses the wing, including the inner margins of the
primaries, excepting the first, appearing on the first secon-
dary, and reflecting along the ti])s of the secondaries, one or
two of Avhich are entirelv white. The lateral tail-feathers

WHITE-BREASTED ^^■l•:KT-^^■Ki:^. 3oi

are white, barred witli dusky; the inner l)econie f;^radu;illy
darker. The throat, breast, sides, belly, and lower tail-
coverts are white ; the sides and fore part of the neek lij^ht
brownish-grey, streaked with dusky, each feather having a
triangular tip of that colour.

Length to end of tail 8| inches ; extent of wings 14 ; ])ill
along the ridge l-jiy, along the edge of lower mandible l-j^ ;
wing from flexure 4yV ; tail 2^^ ; tarsus ^4 ; first toe -y\, its
claw -fL- ; second toe -f.j, its claw j^ ; third to(! -J-^, its claw
-j3j ; fourth toe -j^, its claw -fj.

Female. — The female is precisely similar to tlie male.

Variations. — I have not observed any remarkable vari-
ations in colour or size in adult individuals.

Changes of Plumage. — As the bird is only a summer
resident, and departs in autumn, before much progress has
been made in moulting, I am unable to describe its winter
plumage. Towards the end of the season of its sojourn, the
feathers are often very ragged, and the glossy brown of the
upper parts has considerably faded.

Habits. — This elegant little bird arrives in England
about the middle of April, and in the south of Scotland
towards the end of that month, betaking itself immediately
to the sandy or gravelly shores of lakes and rivers, where it
procures its food, and remains until its departure in Sep-
tember. The species is generally distributed, being found in
all the northern districts of Scotland, and in all tlie larger
Hebrides, as well as in most parts of England and "SVales ;
but the individuals never congregate, although a brood and
their parents, amounting to six, or occasionally two or three
families, may be seen keeping together in the end of summer.
In August and September some may be met with on the
sea-shore, and especially on that of the miuldy estuaries of
our rivers ; but the species is decidedly lacustrine and fluvia-
tile, and is nowhere more plentiful than on the pebbly shores
of the Highland lakes.

rjoi ACTITIS HYPOLEUCOS.

The flight of this species is rapid, and in its course it
moves in various directions, somewliat in the manner of the
Snipe. When flying over the surface of the Mater, which it
often does so low as almost to touch it Avith its wings, it
now and then spreads oiit and bends downwards those
organs, keeping them apparently rigid and motionless at
intervals, and thus proceeding by alternate starts, flapping
and sailing in a manner peculiar to itself. AVhen resting, it
keeps the body nearly horizontal and the legs quite straight,
like the King Plover and many other birds of this order. It
runs with as much celerity as the Sandpipers, to which it is
most intimately allied, but from which it diff"ers in exhibiting
the peculiar irritability and mobility of body observed in all
the species of this genus.

These birds enliven the solitary shores of the moorland
lakes and streams, where they may be seen running with
great activity along the beaches, or skimming over the water,
lu general, however, one is apprised of their presence sooner
by the sense of hearing than by that of sight, for they are
vigilant and suspicious, and on being alarmed commence
their sluill pi])ing, which is continued in the breeding season
until tlie disturber of their qiiiet takes his departure. They
employ the same artifice as the King Plover and Dunlin to
decoy a person from their nest or young. It is by no means
diificult to procure specimens of this species, for although
thus suspicious, it conceives itself safe enough at times
within shooting distance, or skims past on wing unaware of
its danger.

The nest is merely a slight hollow in the sand or among
pebbles, with a few blades of withered grass. Like most of
the birds of this family, it lays four pyriform eggs, which are
placed with the narrow ends together, so as to occupy less
room. They are so disproportionably large that one on
Hading thein is apt to marvel how so small a bird could have
hiid them, their average length being an inch and four-
twelfths, and their greatest breadth an inch. They are
reddish-white or cream-coloured, glossy, and covered with
dots and small spots of dark purplish-brown and greyish-
j)urple.

WHITE-BllEASTED WEET-WEET. 355

The younjT run about iiuniediately after cxtlusion iVfjiu
the egg, conceal themselves by squatting ini>tionless among
tlie stones, and are anxiously tended by tlieir parents. If
discovered and pursued, they sometimes betake themselves
to the water, and swim like young gulls in similar circum-
stances. Tlic old birds, too, should they drop into the
water when wounded, float and swim as if it were their
proper element.

From the manner in whicli this bird continually vibrates
its body, as if on a pivot, joined with its piping notes, the
Hebridians name it tlie Little Fiddler. Its food consists of
insects of all kinils, and the gizzard usually contains sand or
small stones.

Mr. Thompson notes it as " a regular summer visitant to
the lakes, rivers, and brooks throughout Ireland."

Young. — At first the young are covered with long stiffish
down of a brownish-grey colour above, with a brownish-
black band down the back, the lower parts white. Wlien
fledged they are light greyish-brown above, the feathers
margined with two bands, the one dusky, the other reddish.
The fore part and sides of the neck are greyish, with faint
dusky lines ; the rest of the lower parts white, excepting
the lower tibial feathers, Avhich are dusky. The wings and
tail are coloured as in the adult ; the feet more yellow, and
the bill bluisli.

356

ACTITIS MACULAEIA. THE SPOTTED ^YEET-
WEET.

SPOTTED SANDPIPEK.

Tringa macularia. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 734.

Spotted Sandpiper. Mont. Ornith. Diet.

Chevalier Pcrle. Totanus macularia. Temm. Man. d'Omith. II. 656.

Spotted Sandpiper. Totanus macularius. Selb. Illustr. II. 84.

Totanus Macularia. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 199.

Actitis macularius. Eonap. Comp. List. 51.

The hill dusky at tJie point, (ireoiish-hroicn above, i/ellow
beneath; upper parts (/lossy greenisli-broivfi, the head longi-
tudinally streaked, the rest transversely banded with dark
broun; lower })arts white, marked all oirr witli roundish
dusky sjwts. Youiiy icith the upper parts lighter ; tlie feathers
(if the head margined with dusky; the back and wings with
more )iumcrous dusky bars; the lower parts broicnish-white,
nnsjiotted.

M.VLE. — This beautiful species is a little smaller than the
White-bellied, -which it precisely resembles in form, as -vvell
as in the general tint of its upper parts ; but from -which it
is readily distiui^uishable on account of the spots on its
lower surface. The bill is in length and form almost exactly
the same as that of the species just named, being scarcely
longer than the head, straight, slender, compressed, laterally
grooved on the upper mandible for two-thirds of its length,
i)n the lower for one-half, soft and flexible. The eyes are of
moderate size ; the nostrils linear, pervious, two-and-a-half-
twclfths of an inch long. The tibia is bare for four-twelfths
of an inch ; the tarsus has thirty anterior and about the
>anie number of posterior scutella. The hind toe is very

^^ SPOTTED \yEET-WEET. 3.57

small and elevated ; the anterior toes are webbed at the
base, the outer web niueh larger, flattened beneath, and
niargiuate ; the first toe with ten, the second with twenty-
four, the third with thirty-five, the fourth with forty scutella.
The claws are slender, slightly arched, compressed, and
rather acute.

The i)lumagc is soft, blended, glossy, and somewhat
compact on the upper parts. The wings are long ; the
primaries narrowish, the first longest, the second almost
equal ; the secondaries longish, incurved, obliquely rounded
and acuminate, the inner very long and tapering, one of
them only four-twelfths of an inch shorter than the hrst
primary when the wing is closed. The tail is of moderate
length and much rounded.

Tlic bill is greenish-brown above, yellowish-ilesh-coloured
beneath, the extremity of both mandibles blackish. The feet
flesh-colour, tinged with yellow. The general colour of the
upper parts is greyish-brown, tinged with green and glossy ;
the head, hind-neck, and fore part of the back with small
longitudinal dusky lines ; the other parts with distant trans-
verse bars. Some feathers on the edge of the Aving, the
margins of the alular feathers, the tips of the primary and
secondary coverts are white. The alula, primary coverts,
and primary quills are dusky, glossed with green ; the secon-
dary quills lighter ; all the quills, except the inner elongated
secondaries and the outer primary, tipped with white, which
on the secondaries form a conspicuous band. When the
wing is extended it is crossed by a bar of the same colour,
which includes the inner margins of the primaries except
the first and the bases of the secondaries, on which, how-
ever, it is concealed by the coverts. The tail is of the same
colour as the back, tipped with white, that colour margined
anteriorly by a dusky bar ; the feather next to the outer is
paler, Avith several dark bands on its outer web ; that of the
outermost white, with four dusky bands. The lower parts
are pure white, marked all over with roundish, brownish-
black spots, which are larger on the breast and sides.

Length to end of tail 8 inches ; bill along the ridge J-i,
along the edge of lower mandible 1-jVj "wing from flexure

358 ACTITIS MACULARIA.

4-j^; tail 2 ; tarsus -|4; first toe -f^, its claw -^: second toe
■^, its claw -,2g- ; third toe -f^, its claw -^ ; fourth toe ^,
its claw -^.

rKMALD. — The female is similar to the male.

Remarks. — This species is abundant in many parts of
North America, where it is mii^ratory, and frequents the
niari^ins of rivers and pools. Its habits, as described by the
(hnithologists of that country, arc similar to those of our
AVhite-hellied Tatler, which it resembles so closely in form.
Individuals have been shot on the continent of Europe, and
a few are recorded to have been obtained in Britain — the first
in September, 1839.

I have not met with it in any part of Scotland, and state-
ments as to its occurrence must generally be received with
doubt, as persons unacquainted with it arc apt to mistake
for it the yoinig of Tringa Cinclus, which have the lower
parts somewhat similarly spotted. It is, however, included
in the list of birds observed near Montrose, given in the
Statistical Account of Forfarshire.

i59

SCOLOPACINiE.

SNIPES AND ALLIED SPECIES.

Many ornithological writers include the Trintpiia?, Tota-
nina?, and Scolopaciiia?, as here characterized under the
family of Scolopacidie ; and it is certain that they all agree
in many respects, although the groups which I have indi-
cated are natural and intelligible ; and a family containing
all the species belonging to them seems to me rather un-
wieldy and improvable by division. The birds properly
called Snipes, and some others intimately allied to them,
including the Woodcocks, have a family likeness ; and when
viewed collectively, present some peculiar characters by
which they may be distinguished. Some of them, however,
are so closely allied to several of the Tringintc, that in
description they cannot be very clearly distinguished ; and
thus, as is usually the case with very closely connected
groups, it is scarcely possible to mark with certainty the
limits of the two families. In practice, however, a Scolo-
pacine is always readily distinguishable from a Tringine
bird. The general characters of the Scolopacina? may, I
think, be expressed thus : —

Birds of small size, with the body ovate, compact, rather
full ; the neck of moderate length ; the head rather small,
much compressed, and rounded above. The bill very long,
straight, slender, flexible, compressed until toward the end,
where it becomes enlarged, depressed, and is there, as well
as in its whole extent, covered with a soft skin, and has in
its terminal part numerous nervous filaments, the position of
which is indicated, when the parts become dry by little
depressions or scrobiculi ; the extreme tips of both mandibles.

•MO SCOLOPACIN.E.

liowever, are liavd, narrowly obtuse, the upper extending
beyond the lower, and receiving it into a wide groove
beneatb, in sucli a manner as to prevent its offering any
impediment to tlie easy intrusion of the bill into the mud.
This character, however, also presents itself in some of the
TringiucV.

The moutli is extremely nanow ; the tongue elongated,
very slender, channelled above, and acutely pointed ; on the
palate are numerous short, pointed papilUv, directed back-
wards, and ananged in two series. The oesophagus is
narrow ; the stomach a roundish, compressed, very muscular
giz/ard, with a dense plicate epithelium; the intestine of
moderate length and width ; the coeca rather long.

The nostrils very small, linear, basal. Eyes moderate,
generally placed higher than in other birds. The aperture
of the ear large and roundish. The legs are short ; the bare
part of tibia very limited; the tarsus short, anteriorly scu-
tellate ; the toes four, the first very small and elevated ;
the anterior long, slender ; the foui'th a little longer than
the second ; the third much longer ; the claws rather long,
slender, little arched, acute.

The plumage moderately compact ; the wings long or
moderate, rather broad, but pointed ; the first quill, how-
ever, not much exceeding the second ; the inner secondaries
generally much elongated, sometimes moderate and rounded.
The tail short, of from twelve to twenty or more soft, narrow
feathers.

These birds are of more bidding habits than the Trin-
gina? and Totauiua^ which frequent open places, and render
themselves conspicuous by searching the open shores or
exposed places, by their free unsneaking flight, and often by
their clamorous cries. They, on the contrary, seek the
retirement and security of swamps, marshes, ditches, and
brooks. There they search for their food in the quietest pos-
sible manner, proceeding singly and sedately, and thrusting
their long, delicately sensitive, probe-like bills into the mud,
whence they extract the worms and larva;, sucking them up
as it were, and swallowing them with still immersed bill.
They never, I think, pick up insects from the surface, nor

SNIPES AND ALLIED SPECIES.

301

search tli(^ open sands unless at ni<^ht, l)ut keep in conceal-
ment; and when alarmed, sit close and motionless. ^\ hen
surprised they do not run, hut sprin<^ on winj^, and then
generally emit loud cries. They walk well, glide with eas(>
among the herhage, have a very ra])id flight, alight ahruptly,
feed hy night apparently more than hy day ; nestle on the
ground, and in a slight hollow, more or less lined or covered
with fragments of herhage ; lay four very large, pyriform
eggs, patched and spotted witli dark tints. The young,
covered with dense parti-coloured down, presently leave the
nest, squat to conceal themselves, and soon hegin to search
for their food. Tiie females are larger than the males, and
seldom differ from them in colouring. The prevailing colours
are dusky, light red, reddish-yellow, and white, disposed in
hars and streaks. Their flesh is much esteemed, and greatly
superior to that of the Totaninaj.

The scrohiculation of the extremity of the bill, so obvious
in the birds of tliis family, and assumed by many writers as
distinctive of them, is not at all peculiar, but presents itself,
though less conspicuously, in many of the Tringinaj and
TotaniuDC.

FlQ. 30.

SY]\WFSIS OF THE BRITISR GENERA AND SPECIES.

GENU§ I. SCOLOP.VX. SNIPE.

Bill about twice the length of the head, straight, slender,
compressed ; both mandibles grooved, and in their termina 1

.•;62 SCOLOPACINiE.

third scrobiculate, and more or less enlarged, with the tips
hard and narrowed, but obtuse, that of the lower shorter.
Legs rather sliort, slender ; tibia bare for nearly a fourth ;
tarsus compressed, scutellate before and behind; anterior
toes long, slender, free ; claws slender, slightly arched, acute.
Wings long, narrow, pointed ; inner secondaries very long.
Tail short, of from twelve to twenty-four soft feathers.

1. ScvIojxLr major. Great S/ripc. Tail of sixteen fi'uthers ;
bill twice the length of the head ; three lateral tail-feathers
on each side white ; lower parts greyish-white, barred with
brown.

2. Sculopax Gallinago. Coynmon S/npe. Tail rounded,
of fourteen feathers ; bill twice the length of the head ;
abdomen white ; lower tail-coverts light rod, varied Avith
dusky.

3. Scolopax Sahini. Sabine's Snipe. Tail of fourteen
feathers ; bill twice tlie length of the head ; lower parts dull
light red, undulated with dusky.

4. Scolopax GaUinula. Jack Snipe. Tail pointed, of
twelve feathers ; bill about a fourth longer than the head ;
sides longitudinally streaked with brown.

GENUS II. KI'STICOLA. WOODCOCK.

Bill about half as long again as the head, straight, slender,
compressed, tapering; both mandibles grooved, and in their
terminal half inconspicuously scrobiculate, not enlarged at
the end, the tips hard and obtuse, that of the low er shorter.
Legs short, ratlier slender; tibia entirely feathered ; tarsus
roundish, with very broad anterior scutella ; middle toe
long, lateral short, free ; claAvs small, slightly arched, acute.
"Wings ratlier long, broad, somewhat pointed ; inner secon-
daries of moderate length, rounded. Tail short, rounded.

1. Rusticola syhestris. Common IVoodcoc/c. Above
variegated with brownish-black, light red, and pale reddish-
yellow ; beneath yellowish-grey, narrowly barred Mith dark
brown.

368

SCOLOPAX. SNIPE.

The birds of this j^onus, varying in size from that of the
llufF to that of the Dunlin, and generally so similar in
colour as in some cases to be with difficulty distinguishable,
liave the body ovate and somewliat compressed ; the neck of
moderate length ; the head small and rounded above. The
bill about twice the length of the head, flc.dble, straight,
slender, compressed, tapering, with both mandibles grooved
for two-thirds of their length, in their terminal third some-
what enlarged and scrobiculate, with the tips hard and nar-
rowed, but blunt; that of the lower considerably shorter.

Mouth very narrow, its roof with two or three longi-
tudinal series of pointed and reversed papillse. Tongue
very long, slender, channelled above, tapering to a point.
(Esophagus rather narrow, with an oblong proven triculus ;
stomach roundish, very muscular, with dense rugous epithe-
lium ; intestine of moderate length and width ; coeca mode-
rate, cylindrical, narrowed at the commencement.

Nostrils linear, lateral, basal. Eyes rather small. Aper-
tures of ears rather large. Legs rather short, slender ; tibia
bare for nearly a fourth ; tarsus compressed, scutellate before
and behind; first toe very small, slender, and elevated;
anterior toes rather long, slender, free ; claws rather long,
slender, slightly arched, compressed, acute.

Plumage rather firm. AVings long, narrow, pointed; the
first quill longest ; the inner secondaries very long. Tail
short, of from twelve to twenty-four soft feathers.

The Snipes inhabit marshy places, in which they search
for their food in a hideling manner, They nestle on moors,
in moist pastures, meadows, and marshes. The nest is of
slight construction, and the eggs are four, very large, pyri-
form, olivaceous or yellowish, blotched with dusky. Species
are found in most parts of both continents adapted to their
habits.

361

SCOLOPAX MAJOR. GREAT SNIPE.

SOLITAKY SNIPE. AVOODCOCK SNIPE. DOUBLE SNIPE.

Scolopax major. Gmel. Syst. Nat. I. 661.

Seolopax major. Lath. lud. Ornitb. II. 714.

Great Snipe. Mont. Ornith. Diet, and Supplt.

Grande ou Double Becassine. Seolopax major. Temm. Man. d'Oruith, II

675.
Seolopax major. Great Snipe. Flcm. Brit. Anim. 105.
Great Snipe. Seolopax major. Selby, Illustr. II. 115.
Seolopax major. Great Snipe. Jenyns, Brit. Vert. Anim. 205.
Gallinago Montagm. Bonap. Comp. List. 52.

Tail rounded, of sixteen feathers ; hill twice the length of
the head; two lonfiitudinal black barids on the head separated
by a narrower medial rcddish-wliite band, and on each side a
yelloicish-ivhite band; the upper parts variegated w'ttJi black
and light red, with four longitudinal yellowish wJtitc bands;
tving-covcrts tipped with white; three lateral tail-feathers on
each side white; sides transversely barred ivith dusky; axillar
feathers white, barred with greyish-black.

Male. — This species is considerably larger than our
common Snipe, whicli it, hoAvcver, so closely resembles, that
one might readily mistake a specimen of it for a large indi-
vidual of that species. The body is ovate, compact, and
rather full ; the neck of moderate length ; the head small,
oblong, compressed, much rounded above. The bill is nearly
twice the length of the head, slender, straight, compressed
until near the end, where it is depressed ; the upper man-
dible with the ridge narrow but rounded, toward the end
sulcatc, the lateral gi-ooves extending nearly to the end, the
edges rather sharp, the tip blunt ; the lower mandible with
the angle extremely long and continued into a groove, which

GREAT SNIPE. 30.5

extends to the tip, its sides erect, the tip bhint, and two-
twelfths of an inch shorter than that of the upper mandible.

The eyes of moderate size ; the aperture of the ear lar<re ;
the nostrils very small, basal, linear. The legs rather short ;
the tibia bare for five-twelfths of an inch ; the tarsus short,
with twenty scutella ; the anterior toes rather long, slender,
compressed ; the claws rather long, arcuate, much com-
pressed, acute.

The plumage is moderately compact ; those of the back
and the scapulars much elongated. The wings rather long,
of twenty-five quills ; the primaries slightly incurved, the
first longest ; the secondaries incurved, rounded at the end,
the inner straight, elongated, rather obtuse. The tail short,
somewhat doubly emarginate, of sixteen obtuse feathers.

IJill yellowish-brown at the base, dusky toward the end.
Irides brown. Feet pale bluish-green ; claws black. From
the bill to the occiput two broad bands of blackish-brown,
slightly variegated with light red, and separated by a nar-
rower band of pale reddish-brown ; from the bill over each
eye a band of pale brown ; the loral band dark brown. The
neck all round pale brown, each feather darker in the
middle ; the chin pale yellowish-brown. The elongated
feathers of the back and the scapulars are brownish-black,
variegated with yellowish-brown, externally margined witli
buff, of which there are thus four longitudinal bands on the
back. On the hind part of the back and rump the feathers
are barred with pale brownish-yellow and dark brown, as
are the upper tail-coverts. The tail-feathers are brownish-
black, toward the end with a broad irregular band of
chestnut-red, succeeded by a narrow band of black, the tip
white ; the outer four feathers on each side nearly all white.
The smaller wing-coverts are black, tipped with pale brown ;
the larger black, tipped with white ; the quills greyish-black,
with the shafts white ; the secondaries largely tipped with
white ; the inner secondaries banded like the back. The
middle of the breast and the abdomen brownish-white, barred
with brown ; the sides undulated and barred with dusky and
pale brown ; the axillaries white, with blackish-grey bars.
Length to end of tail 12 inches; extent of Avings 18;

3G6 SCOLOPAX MAJOR.

wing from flexure 5^ ; tail 2^ ; bill alonc^ the ridge 2\ ;
tarsus l-fV ; liiiid toe -f^, its claw ^ ; middle toe -pV, its
claw -j3j.

Female. — The female is similar to the male.

H.A.BITS. — This species has been found breeding in Nor-
way, Sweden, and some parts of Germany. It has been
observed in Holland, France, Switzerland, Italy, Hungary,
and the Caucasus. In Britain, — it has not hitherto, I believe,
been found in Shetland ; but in the Historia Naturalis
Orcadensis it is stated that " this bird appeared several
times in marshy ground in Sanday, in September, 1815."
In Scotland it appears to be very rare. Mr. St. John says
he never saw but one there, and that was in Sutherland. I
have not seen an individual, dead or alive, that had the
honour of standing on Scottish giound ; but several reports
of its occurrence along the east coast have come to my ears.
]Mr. Selby states that several instances of its occurrence in
Northumberland had come to his knowledge within the
eight or ten years preceding 1833, and was informed that
five or six had been shot, in 182G, in a morass in the county
of Durham. Montagu relates that individuals had been
killed in the counties of Kent, Wilts, and Lancaster ; and
other localities have since been given. Mr. Yarrell says it
is now by no means uncommon in England, but occurs more
frequently in autumn than in any other season ; and Mr.
Thompson notes it as occasionally obtained in Ireland,
thougli he " never could meet Avith oiu^ among the thousands
of Snipes exposed for sale during the autumn and winter in
Helfast." Considering its comparative scarcity as an autumnal
visitant, Mr. Selby's remark tliat " the immediate direction
of tlieir latitudinal flight is much to the cast of the longitude
of the Jhitisli Islands," is ])ro])ably correct. The course of
that flight, however, does not appear to have as yet been
determined by observation.

The habits of the Great Snipe may be tolerably well
made out by comparing the various statements and notices
given by authors. It arrives in the northern countries in

GREAT SNIPE. 367

the begiiininjT of summer, and presently commences the

business of ])r()])a<^atiou. Mr. (irciff ^ives such an account
of their habits at this period as would lead us to assimilate
thcni to those of the Ruff: — '• I Avas an old sportsman of
thirty years' standiiiu^ before it came to my knowledj^e that
Double Snipes had their Ick, or playing-ground. I heard
their cry a whole sprins^, which was in a marsh where I had
a good orr-lck, but never observed them, and therefore be-
lieved it to be some frogs or reptiles ; but at last I discovered
they were Double Snipes, which ran like rats among the
hillocks. Their cry commences witli a sound resembling the
smack of the tongue, and thereuj)t)u four or flvi; louder
follow." According to Mr. Hoy, '" the nest is similar to,
and placed in the same situation as, that of the common
species. The eggs are four in number." Mr. Yarrell adds,
" These arc of a yellow olive-brown, s])otted with two shades
of reddish-brown ; the length one inch nine lines, by one
inch and two lines in breadth." After breeding, these birds
remain in the north until toward the end of September, and
they and their young become extremely fiit, and afford the
most delicious eating ; for which reason, and the amusement
they afford, they are much sought after, and, being easy to
shoot, are, in some places killed in great numbers.

The flight of the Great Snipe is less rapid than that of
the Common species. It rises in silence, flies steadily and
heavily, Avith the tail expanded like a fan, and usually pro-
ceeds but a short distance before alightinu'.

3G8

SCOLOPAX GALLINAGO. THE COMMON SNIPE.

MOOR, OR MIEE SNIPE. HEATHER-BUTER, BLEATER, OR BLVTTER. NAOSG.

JAX-CnURAG.

l-io. 31.

Scolopax Gallinago. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 214.

Scolopax Gallinago. Lath. Ind. Oru. II.

Common Snipe. Mont. Om. Diet.

Becassine ordinaire. Scolopax Gallinago. Tcmm. Man. d'Orn. II. 676.

Scolopax Gallinago. Common Snipe. Flora. Brit. Anim. 106.

Common Snipe. Scolopax GaUinago. Selb. lUustr. Brit. Omith. II. 121.

Scolopax Gallinago. Common Snipe. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 205.

Gallinago scolopacinus. Bonap. Comp. List, 52.

Tail rounded, of fourteen feathers; secondary qu'dls
rounded ; hdl twice the length of the head ; on the head two
longitudinal black hands separated by a narrower medial red-
dish-wltite hand, and on each side a reddish-white band ; the
iip2)cr 2^^'f'ts variegated nitli black aiid light red, uith four
longitudinal yellowish-white hands; sides transversly barred
witli dusky ; axillar featJiers nliite barred uith greyish-hlack ;
lower tail-coverts light red, barred ivith dusky.

COMMON SNIPE. 3G<»

Male. — This species, which is somewhat inferior in size to
the hist, and greatly exceeds the next, is of the ordinary form
in this genns, its body heing compact anil rather full; the
neck of moderate length, the head rather small, (jblong, com-
pressed, and rounded above. The bill is twice the length of
the head, slender, straight, compressed until near the end,
where it is depressed ; the upper mandible with the ridge
narrow but obtuse, toward the end sulcate, the lateral groove
extending nearly to the i-nd, the edges rather sharp, the tip
blunt ; tlie lower nuiiidible with the angle extremely long
and continued into a groove, which extends to the tip, its
sides erect, the tip blunt and two-twelfths of an inch shorter
than that of the upper mandible.

The (>yes are moderate, their aperture being three-
twelfths. That of the ear four-twelfths. The nostrils vcrv
small, basal, linear, a twelfth and a half long. The legs are
short ; the tibia bare for a third of an inch ; the tarsus short,
with eighteen scutella. The hind toe has eight, the inner
eighteen, the third thirty, the fourth twenty-eight scutella ;
the fore toes entirely separated. The claws are small,
arcuate, much compressed, laterally concave at the base,
pointed.

The plumage is moderately compact ; the feathers oblong ;
those of the fV)re part of the back and the sca})idars much
elongated. The wings rather long, of twenty-five quills ;
the primaries slightly incurved, the iirst longest ; the secon-
daries incurved, rounded at the end, the inner straight,
elongated, rather acute. The tail is short, somewhat doublv
emarginate, of fourteen obtuse feathers.

IJill greyish-blue at the base, dusky in the rest of its
extent, but with two-thirds of the ridge Hesh-colourcd.
Irides brown. Feet pale greenish-blue ; claws black. From
the bill to the occiput two broad bauds of black, slightly
variegated m ith pale red, and separated by a narrow band of
reddish- white ; from the bill over each eye a band of reddish-
white ; the loral band dusky ; then a band of reddish- white
dotted with brown to behind the eve, and beneath it an
obscure band of dusky spots. The throat is reddish-white ;
the neck all round variegated with reddish-wliite tinged with

A A

370 SCOLOPAX GALLINAGO.

grey and dusky. The elongated feathers of the back and
the scapiihirs are deep hhick, variegated Avith light red,
externally margined Avith reddish-white, of which there
are thus four longitudinal bands on the back. On the hind
])art of the back and rum]> the feathers are barred "with
dusky and light red, as are the upper tail-coverts, of -Nvhicli
the light bars incline to white. The tail is brownish-black,
toward the end irregularly barred or spotted with reddish-
white, succeeded by a curved narrow bar of black, the tip
light red, the lateral feathers much paler. The smaller
wing-coverts are black glossed with ])urplc, and tijiped with
reddish-grey ; the quills greyish-black ; the outer web of the
first white, its shaft brownish-white, tlie ])riraaries slightly,
the secondaries largely tipped with white ; the inner secon-
daries banded like the back; tlie larger coverts similar to
their respective quills. The middle of the breast and the
abdomen are white ; the sides undulated and barred Avith
dusky; the axillaries white, with greyish-black bars; the
lower wing-coverts greyish-dusky, margined Avith Avhite.
The loAver tail-coverts are pale red barred Avith dusky.

Length to end of tail 10^ inches ; extent of Avings 16 ;
wing from flexure 5^; tail 2-j^; bill along the ridge 2^,
along the edge of loAver mandible 2-j^ ; tarsus 1 jV ; hind
toe -fij, its claAv ^ ; second toe \^, its claAV -^ ; third toe
1y2, its claAv -y^: fourth toe 1, its chiAv -fj.

Female. — The female is similar to the male, generally
has the dusky bars of the sides more extended, and is
considerably larger.

Length to end of tail 11^ inches; extent of Avings IT^-;
wing from flexure 5-jV ; tail 2-Jv ; bill along the ridge 2-L^,
along the edge of loAver mandible 2^ ; tarsus 1-j^ ; bare
])art of tibia -f^ ; hind toe -f^, its claAV -fj ; second toe 1, its
claw -,3_; third toe lyV, its claw jV; fourth toe l^i, its claAV -^.

Vartations. — Adult birds vary considerably in si/c, and
es])ecially in the length of the bill. Lidividuals pure Avhite
or yelloAvish-white, or Avhite variegated Avith red and dusky,
or more fretpiently of the ordinary colours, Avith some Avhite

COMMON SNIPE. 371

feathers, are sometimes, l)ut in this covinti y very seldom, met
Avitli. Tlie colour of the feet varies.

Chances of Plumage. — There is no remarkable differ-
ence between the summer and winter plumaji^r, the latter
when fresh heiny as richly coloured as the former. Toward
the end of summer the colours are greatly faded, the winj^s
have lost their purple gloss, and the reddish tints are much
paler.

IIabits. — Beautiful are those green woods that hang
upon the craggy sides of the fern-clad hills, where the
heath-fowl threads its way among the tufts of brown heath,
and the Cuckoo sings his ever-pleasing notes as he balances
himself on the grey stone, vibrating his fan-like tail. Now
I listen to the simple song of the mountain Blackbird,
warbled by the quiet lake that spreads its glittering Ixjsoni
to the sun, winding far away among the mountains, amid
whose rocky glens wander the wild deer, tossing their
antlered heads on high as they snuff the breeze tainted with
the odour of the slow-paced shepherd and his faithful dog.
In that recess formed by two moss-clad slabs of mica-slate,
the lively "Wren jerks up its little tail, and chits its merry
note, as it recalls its straggling young ones that have wan-
dered among the bushes. From the sedgy slope, s})rinkled
with Avhite cotton-grass, comes the shrill cry of the solitary
Curlew ; and there, high over the heath, wings his mean-
dering way the joyous ISnipe, giddy with excess of unalloyed
happiness.

There another has sprung from among the yellow-flowered
marigolds that profusely cover the marsh. Upwards slant-
ingly, on rapidly vibrating wings, he shoots, uttering the
while his shrill two-noted cry. Tissick, tissick, quoth the
Snipe, as he leaves the bog. Now in silence he wends his
way, until at length having reached the height of perhaps a
thousand feet, he zigzags along, emitting a louder and
shriller cry of zoo-zee, zoo-zee, zoo-zee ; which over, varying
his action, he descends on quivering pinions, curving toward
the earth with surprising speed, while from the rapid beats

372 SCOLOPAX GALLINAGO.

of his wing the tremulous air gives to the car what at first
seems the voice of distant thunder. This noise some have
likened to the hleating of a goat at a distance on the hill-
side, and thus have named our bird the Air-goat and Air-
bleater. The soimd, I think, is evidently produced by the
rapid action of the wings, which, during its continuance,
are seen to be in tremulous motion. It comes on the ear
soon after the bird commences its descent, and ceases when,
having gained the lowest part of the curve, it recovers itself,
and ascends with a different and ordinary motion of its
wings. I have never heard it under any other circum-
stances. AVere it produced by the voice it might be emitted
when the bird is on the ground, or during its ordinary
flight ; but should one hear it on the moor, he will invari-
ably find that it proceeds from on high. In this manner
the Snipe may continue to amuse itself for, perhaps, an hour
or more ; and sometimes, in the clear sky, one may trace it
until at length it mounts so high as to be no longer
perceptible.

This drumming noise of the Snipe commences in April,
and is continued through the summer. It is altogether a
solitary act, although several individuals may often be heard
at the same time, and may be an expression of the happiness
of the bird, or an intimation of its presence to its mate while
sitting upon her eggs. We have no means of ascertaining
its object, nor has it been determined whether it be per-
formed by the male only, or by the female also. When the
bird has gone through his evolutions, he descends, often
with astonishing velocity, on partially extended and appa-
rently motionless wings, diminishes his speed a little as he
a])pr()aches the ground obliquely, and alights abruptly.

In winter this species is dispersed over the Avhole of
Britain, and in summer many remain to breed even in the
most soutliern ])arts, where there are suitable" places ; but in
England tlie number is very inferior to what is met with in
Scotland ; on all the moist heaths of which, but especially
on thos(! of the northern parts and the Hebrides, it is
extremely abundant. The multitudes that rear their young
in tlie bogs of Lewis, Harris, and the Vists are truly

COMMON SNIPE. 37:5

astonishing. There the nests arc found in various situations ;
often in the grassy pastures, but more frequently on the
unfrequented moors, from tlie h'vel of tlie lakes to the lieight
of two thousand feet. A slight hollow, lined with hits of
heath and grass or sedge, and situated on a dry tuft, or
among stunted heath or moss, receives the eggs, which are
usually four in number, although 1 have often found only
three, pyriform, placed with the small ends together, gene-
rally an inch and seven-twi'lfths long, an inch and one-twelfth
in breadth, of a greyish-yellow colour, tinged with greenish-
blue, and marked with irregular spots and patches of dark
brown and brownish-grey, more numerous toward the larger
end. They vary considerably in form, size, and colour.

The young, -which are at first covered with extremely
soft, tufty down, of a brownish-red colour, spotted with
dusky brown and white on the head and upper parts, leave
the nest presently after emerging from the eggs, and accom-
pany their parents in search of food. Whether they are at
first fed by them, or from the beginning seek out their food
of themselves, has not been determined. They conceal
themselves by squatting when in apprehension of danger,
and are anxiously tended by their mother, who flies around
the intruder on their haunts, alights, and feigns lameness, in
the manner of the Dunlin, Golden Plover, and other birds of
this order. When they are fledged they disj^erse, and the
parents usually nestle a second time.

When the nights become cold after the middle of autumn,
the Snipes betake themselves to the marshy parts of the
lower grounds, and later in the season they almost entirely
leave the moors, especially those that are elevated ; but in
all parts of Scotland individuals are met with on the moors
during the whole winter. Usually they remain in the more
unfrequented parts during the day, part of which they pass
in repose ; and in the evening resort to the low grounds,
where they may be seen arriving singly in favourite places,
and where they remain all night searching for food. In
such places in the Hebrides, as in marshy meadows and by
the sides of pools, I have started hundreds of them at night.
By moonlight I have seen them in surprising numbers on

.J 74 SCOLOPAX GALLINAGO.

the inarj;"ins of these pools, and even fic(iueiitly wacliii<; a
little way into the shallow water. Early in the morning
tht>y may he ol)tained in such sitnations in great al)nndance ;
hnt atler a few shots have heen lired, they generally fly off
singly or in small parties to a great distance.

In winter, especially dnring frost, they often hetake
themselves in great nvnnhers to marshy places on the coast
liahle to he overflowed hy the tide. Dui'ing snow they
resort to the unfrozen rills, hrooks, ditches, and the sides of
rivers, as well as to the sea-shore. On a hank from which a
numher of springs oozed, in the island of Harris, I have, in
the time of long-continued snow, seen several hundreds of
them crowded together in search of a precarious morsel of
food. So intent were the famished hirds on their search,
that when a shot was lired very few of them flew otf", and
the spot on which they were was presently occupied hy
others which unexpectedly arrived. Even in these northern
parts, I think the numher of Snipes is not much diminished
in winter. On the other hand, it is vastly increased at that
season in most parts of England ; hut whether that increase
arises from the immigration of individuals from the" conti-
nent, or merely from the descent of our resident hirds from
the central and northern moors, is not apparent. That they
leave many of our moors in winter I am Avell assmed, for at
that season I have traversed places that ahoundcd with
them in sinnmer without meeting with any.

At all times the Snipe is sly and suspicious ; hut, instead
of flving off when \inder api)rchension of danger, it lies close
to the ground, draws in its neck, and inclines its hill down-
wards, expecting to escape notice ; and one may come within
a few feet of it hefore it rises, for on such occasions it is
almost impossil)le to perceive it. On rising, it invariably
utters a shrill lisping cry of two sharp notes, flies low or
ohlicpiely upwards, with a zigzag motion, for ahout eighty or
a hundred yards, and then assumes a more direct flight.
Although this undulating motion continues so long, the
deviation to either side is not so great as to render it very
dithcult to shoot it, when one has become accustomed to this
kind of sport. The ordinary flight of this bird is rapid and

COMMON SNIPE. 375

direct, and, when it is prucccdiii;^ to a distant place, elevated.
It is very seldom that two or more individuals are seen
together on wing, unless when a sliot has been fired in a
place where they are very numerous.

The food of the Snipe consists of worms, insects, and
delicate fibrous roots of jjlants. On alighting it stands for a
short time, apparently for the ])urpose of looking around ;
then ])roceeds in search of food with its bill obliquely
inclined toward the grimnd, which it rapidly probes to a
variable de})th, sometimes inserting the bill to its base. By
the peaty or muddy edges of ditches, rills, and small water-
runs, the marks thus left are frequent. It also wades in the
water, keeping itself as high as possible on its legs. In
feeding it cannot be properly said to associate with any
other bird, although occasionally in summer the Dunlin, and
in winter the Water Rail and Jack Snipe may be found in
the same place.

I have many times watched the Snipe while feeding by
unfrozen rills and in oozy ground, when there Avas snow on
the gTOund, as well as on ordinary occasions, when, however,
it is very difficult to observe it, or when it is met with, to
avoid alarming it. Proceeding in a crouching manner, it
thrusts its bill rapidly into the mnd, often up to the base,
seems to be groping Avith it for a moment or two, then as
rapidly Avithdraws it, and thus goes on, advancing sloAvly
and making many thrusts in some places, in others moving
quickly and making few trials. I have never seen it extract
anything to be subsequently SAvalloAved, prehension and deglu-
tition being apparently performed Avhile the bill is immersed.
It proceeds in silence, and if alarmed stops, crouches close
to the ground, sometimes alloAving a very near approach ; or
if in a soft muddy or very Avet place, flying off from a con-
siderable distance.

Its flesh being delicate and savoury, the Snipe is in much
request, and is common in our markets. For this and other
reasons it is a favourite Avith sportsmen. It is also caught
with springes set in its usual runs, in the same manner as
the Woodcock. It is a general, but, I think, a filthy
practice, to prepare Snipes for the table Avithout removing

:J7G SCOLOPAX GALLINAGO.

their digestive organs or their contents, wliich are relished
by persons who ^vould turn with k)athing from meat in
which a Avorm had been seen. At the same time, the few
insects and crawling things that may happen to be in a
Snipe's stomach can do no harm, although they are not so
agreeable as the beans from a AA'ood-pigcon's crop, which I
liave seen eaten.

This species of Snipe is generally dispersed over the
continent, in the northern parts of which it is migratory. It
also occurs in various parts of Asia, but has not been met
with in America.

Kemarks. — A species of Snipe, Scolopax Wilsoni, occurs
in North America, so very similar in size, proportions, and
colours to ours, that on placing the two together one can
liardly discover any distinctive characters. That species,
however, has sixteen feathers in the tail, whereas ours has
only fourteen, and is said to differ in its notes and some of
its habits.

M. Temminck gives as a distinctive character of our
Common Sni])e a brown shaft to the outer as well as the
other (piills ; but that shaft is always white for a fourth of its
length, and in tlie rest of its extent sometimes pale brown,
sometimes brownish-white, and occasionally entirely white.

377

SCOLOPAX SABINI. SABINE'S SNIPE.

Scolopax Sabini. Vigors, Linn. Trans. XIV. 550.

Scolopax Sabini. Jard. and Selby, lUustr. of Ornith. pi. XXVII.

Scolopax Sabini. Flum. I5rit. Anini. 105.

Scolopax Sabini. Jen. Brit. Vert. Anim. 204.

Scolopax Sabini. Tcnini. Man. d'Ornitb. IV. 432.

Scolopax Sabini. Sclby, Illustr. Brit. Ornith. II. 118.

Scolopax Sabini. Gould, Birds of Eur. pt. XVI.

Gallinago Sabini. Bonap. Comp. List, 52.

Tail rounded, of fourteen feathers ; hill more than twice
the length of the head ; upper part of the head and hind-neck
hroicnish-hlack, spotted icith dull chestnut-hrown ; hack and
wings hlach, harred and spotted with chestnut-red ; tail hlack
for half its length, then chestnut-red, harred with hlack;
lotcer jmrts dull light red, tindulated with dusky.

Adult. — This species, of which I have no specimen for
description, is characterized by its peculiar style of colouring,
as indicated above. Otherwise it is very intimately allied to
the Common Snipe, of which it might be supposed a variety,
were the colouring of all the individuals hitherto obtained
not the same. It cannot be better introduced to notice than
in the words of its first describer, the late Mr. Vigors, who
announced its discovery in the fourteenth volume of the
Transactions of the Linnaean Society : —

" This species is at once distinguished from every other
European species of Scolopax, by the total absence of white
from its plumage, or of any of those lighter tints of ferru-
ginous yellow, which extend more or less in stripes along
the head and back of them all. In this respect it exhibits
a strong resemblance to the Scolopax saturata of Dr. Horse-

378 SCOLOPAX SABINI.

field, from Avhitli, however, it sufficiently differs in its general
proportions ; and I find no description of any other extra-
European species of true Scolopax Avhicli at all approaches
it in this character of its plumage. In the number of the
tail-feathers, ai;ain, Avhich amount to twelve, it differs from
Scolo})ax major, which has sixteen, and agrees with Scolopax
Gallinula, which also has but twelve ; but it never can be con-
founded Avith that bird, from the great disproportion between
the essential cliaracters of both, the bill alone of Scolopax
Sabini exceeding that of the latter species by one-third of its
length. In the relative length and strength of the tarsi, it
equally differs from all. These members, although stouter
than those of Scolopax Gallinago, fall short of them by
three-twentieths of an inch : they are much weaker, on the
other lumd, than those of Scolopax major, although they
nearly e(|ual them in length. In general appearance it bears
a greater resemblance to Scolopax rusticola than to the other
European Scolopaces, but it may be immediately recognized
as belonging to a different station in the genus ; the two
exterior toes being united at the base for a short distance, as
in the greater number of the congeneric species ; while those
of Scolopax rusticola are divided to the origin."

" This bird was shot in the Queen's County, in Ireland,
by the Rev. Charles Doyne, of Portarlington, in that county,
on the 21st of August, 1822, and was obligingly communi-
cated to me the same day. I have named the species in
honour of the Chairman of the Zoological Club of the Lin-
na?an Society, whose zeal and ability have thrown so much
light upon the ornithology of the British Islands."

Another individual is announced by Mr. Vigors in a
note : — " Since this communication was read to the Society,
I have been enabled to record a second instance of this bird
having been met with in the British Islands. On the 26tli
of October, 1824, a female of this species was shot on the
banks of the jNIedway, near Rochester, and is preserved in
the valuable collection of Mr. Dunning, of Maidstone. The
specimen was kindly comnnmicatcd to me by that gentleman,
and was exhibited to the Zoological Club on the 23rd of
November, 1824. It accords in every particular Avith the

SABINE'S SNIPE. :J79

spccinu'ii first ()l)(;iiiu'(l, \vitli the exception of l)eiii;^ so?iie-
wliut smaller. This diHereiue of size most probably indicates
the difference of sex."

Mr. Thompson, of Belfast, afterwards exliibited to the
Zoological 8oci(>ty of London a second Irish specimen, shot
by Captain Hontram, in the end of LSI^T, about a mile from
Garvagh, in the connty of Londonderry. In 1833, Mr,
Sclby " received a fresh specimen of this rare Snipe from
Morpeth, possessin<;' all the characteristics of Mr. A'igors'.s
bird. The undi-r parts, perluqis, a little darker, having
fewer bars or undulations of the lighter tint." Several
specimens are mentioned by ^Nlr. Thompson as occurring in
various ])arts of hidand, all the individuals recorded by him
as occurring in that country amounting to ten. " Not so
many," he continues, " have been procured in England, and
in Scotland none at all, (Jard., Macg.) This bird is not
known out of the British Islands, and there only as one of
which a few individuals have fallen beneath the guns of
Snipe-shooters." Mr. Thompson mentions two specimens
having thirteen tail-feathers, the true number being thus, no
doubt, fourteen, as in Scolopax Gallinago.

380

SCOLOPAX GALLINULA. TPIE JACK SNIPE.

JUDCOCK. JID.

Scolopax Gallinula. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 244.

Scolopax (Jalliuula. Lath. Lid. Oru. IL 715.

Jack Snipe. Mont. Ornith. Diet.

Becassine Souidc. Scolopa.x Gallinula. Temm. Man. d' Ornith. IL 678.

Scolopax Gallinula. Jack Snipe. Flcm. Brit. Anim. 106.

Jack Snipe. Scolopax Gallinula. Sclb. lUustr. IL 125.

Scolopax Gallinula. Jack Snipe. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 206.

Gallinago Gallinula. Bonap. Comp. List, 52.

Tail 2)ointcd, of twelve feathers ; secondary quills acutely
pointed ; hill about a fourth longer than the head. A longi-
tudinal black band, slightly variegated with red on the head,
and 071 each side a reddish-ichite band, in part divided by a
dushy line; on the back three longitudinal bands of black
glossed with purple and green and variegated with red, and
four bands of p>ale yellowish-red ; sides longitudinally streaked
with brow/i, axillar feathers white, with some faint grey
elongated lines.

Male. — This species, the smallest of those that occur in
Britain, is nearly of the same form as the last, having the
l)ody compact and rather full, the neck of moderate length,
the head nnicli compressed and rounded ahove. The bill is
proportionally shorter and stouter at the base, being only
about a fourth longer than the head, straight, nearly twice
as liigh as broad at the commencement, but suddenly nar-
rowing, and toward the end depressed ; the up])('r mandible
with the ridge narrow but obtuse, toward the end sulcate,
the lateral groove extending nearly to the end, the edges
sharp but soft and inflected, the tip blunt ; the lower man-
dible with the angle extending almost to the tip, the sides

JACK SNIPE. nsi

rroft, the edges soft, tlie point ])luiit. The; ton;;uf' is <in
iiu-li and ton-twelfths long, slender, soft, thin, canaliculate
ahove, horny beneath, acutely ])ointed. Along the whole
length of the upper jaw is a double series of short, pointed,
reversed j)apilkf ; the (esophagus is three inches and a
quarter in length.

The eyes are moderate, their aperture being two-twelfths
and a half. That of the ear is large, being three-twelfths.
The nostril is very small, linear-oblong, only one-twelfth
long. The legs arc rather short ; the tibia bare for a third
of an inch ; the tarsus short, with eighteen scutclla. The
hind toe has six, the inner eighteen, the third thirty, the
fourth twenty-six scutclla; the fore toes entirely separated.
The claws are small, arcuato-declinate, much compressed,
laterally concave at the base, pointed.

The plumage is moderately compact; the feathers oblong;
those of the fore part of the back and the scapulars much
elongated. The wings rather long, of twenty-five quills ;
the primaries slightly incurved, the first longest ; the secon-
daries incurved, acuminate, the inner straight, elongated,
tapering. The tail is short, of tAvelve narrow, pointed
feathers.

Bill greyish-blue at the base, dusky in the rest of its
extent, but with two-thirds of the ridge flesh-coloured.
Trides dark brown. Feet pale greenish-blue ; claws brownish-
black. From the bill to the nape a brownish-black band, at
first very narrow and gradually enlarging, all the feathers
slightly margined with brownish-red ; on each side from the
bill to the nape a broad band of reddish-white, in part
divided by a dusky line ; a dusky loral band, then a band of
reddish-white to behind the eye, and another of dusky. The
throat is reddish-white ; the neck all round variegated with
reddish-white and dusky. The elongated feathers of the
back and the scapulars are deep black partly glossed with
purple, variegated with light red, externally broadly mar-
gined with pale yellowish-red, internally with glossy green.
There are thus four longitudinal pale red bands on the back.
Along the middle of the hind part of the back the feathers
arc small, black glossed with purple, and very narrowly

382 SCOLOPAX GALLIXULA.

tipped with groyisli-Avhitc, wliicli latter is the prcvaihng
cok)ur on the sides of the back. The up])er tail-eoverts and
ruiii})-feathcis are dusky, variegated \vith light red, and
broadly margined with pale yellowish-red. The tail-feathers
are dusky, on the outer web toward the end undulated with
dull light red, all margined with light red. The wings are
dusky ; the eoverts and quills tipped with greyish-white, the
middle coverts with reddish ; the inner secondaries and their
coverts burred with light red on the outer web. The breast
and abdomen are white ; the upper part of the sides streaked
with dusky and red ; the lower tail-coverts with a slight
reddish central streak. The lower wing-coverts deep grey,
edged with gi-eyish- white.

Length to end of tail 8j inches ; extent of wings 14^ ;
bill along the ridge l^V? along the edge of lower mandible
1-j^ ; Aving from flexure 4:^ ; tail 2-^ ; tarsus -L^ ; hind toe
-(Kf, its claw yV ; second toe -f-rr, its claw -fj ; third toe l-yV>
its claw -y^Tj- ; fourth toe \^, its claw -f^.

Female. — The female resembles the male.

IIahits. — The Jack Snipe arrives about the beginning of
October, sometimes earlier, and departs in March. It is
generally dispersed over the country, residing in marshy
places, by the margins of rivers and lakes, in ditches, and,
in short, in the same kind of ])laces as our Common Snipe.
Unless occasionally in time of snow, when attracted by
unfrozen patches of water, individuals never congregate, this
species being more solitary than even the other.

Although not nearly so nunurous, it is not at all rare in
many districts, and is generally dispersed over Britain. In
Scotland the proportion of Jack Snipes to Connnon Snipes
cannot, I think, be greater than as one to a hundred; but
in Ireland, according to Mr. Thom])son, Avho calculates from
actual facts. Jack Snipes would seem to be in the pro])ortion
of about one-fourth to the common species." lie states that
it has " greatly increased in numbers of late years in the
north of Ireland ; and gives, from Mr. E. Jackson, game-
keeper, several instances of its breeding in that country, lu

JACK SNIIM:. 383

Scotland and England it lias only, in u very frw instances,
been known to breed.

It is considered a la/y bird, as it seldom rises until one is
close ii])on it ; but tliis is scarcely an indication of sluggish-
ness, and may rather be attributed to a desire of concealing
itself in the apprehension of danger. On being raised (ji-
flushed, as the sportsmen say, it flies off" low, in a slightly
zigy.ag manner, and without emitting any cry, until about
seventy or eighty yards distant, when it ascends, generally
proceeds but a short way, and comes down with rapidity in
the first suitable place that occurs.

As to its distribution on the continent, it will sufiice to
state that, according to various authorities, it extends from
Norway to the south of Euro])e, and has been found in some
parts of Asia. Its habits in the breeding season are not
described. Mr. Yarrell states that " the egg is of a yellowish-
olive, the lai-ger end spotted Avith two shades of brown ; the
length of the v^^*^ one inch three lines, by ten lines in
breadth."

Yorxo. — The young in Avinter differ from the old birds
only in having much less glossy purple and gi-een on the
back.

Remarks. — Independently of colour and size, this species
is easily distinguished from any other by its cuneate tail and
acuminate secondary quills. M. Temminck and some others
assert that it occurs in North America ; but this statement is
erroneous.

384

RUSTICOLA. WOODCOCK.

The "Woodcocks differ from the Snipes in having the
body fuller, the tibiae feathered to the joint, the tarsi shorter,
the ^vings broader, and the bill firmer and less scrobicular.
Their habits, although essentially similar, are in some re-
spects different. These birds are also of larger size than the
Snipes. The head is of moderate size, very convex above,
not much compressed, with the eyes rather large, placed
very high and farther back than usual.

Bill longer than the head, straight, slender, tapering,
compressed, with both mandibles grooved nearly to the end,
scarcely enlarged there, scrobiculate beyond the middle, Avith
the tips hard and obtuse, the upper projecting beneath into
a considerable sulcate knob, into the depression behind
which that of the lower is received.

^louth very narrow ; its roof Avith series of reversed
pointed papilla?. Tongue very long, slender, channelled
above, tapering to a ])oint. GEsophagus rather narrow, with
an oblong proventriculus ; stomach roundish, very muscnlar,
with dense rugous epithelium ; intestine of moderate length
and width ; ca^ca moderate, cylindrical.

Nostrils sub-basal, sub-linear. Eyes rather large ; as are
the apertures of the ears. I^cgs short, rather strong ; tibia
feathered in its whole length ; tarsus roundish, with very
broad anterior scutella; first toe small, a little above the
level of tlie anterior, of which the medial is long, compressed,
marginate, the outer a little longer than the inner ; claws
short, obtuse, that of the middle toe only being of moderate
length and ratlier acute.

I'lumage firm. Wings long, broad, pointed; the first
quill slightly longer tlian the second ; the outer primaries
considerably incurvate, all the primaries rounded at the

RUSTICOLA. WOODCOCK. 38u

cud ; the inner secondaries broad and not much elongated.
Tail short, rounded.

These birds inhabit marshy ])laces, moors, and woods ;
rest for the most part by day, and at nigiit search for food
in the same manner as the Snipes, by thrusting their bill
into the mud or soft earth. Their nest is slightly con-
structed ; the eggs four, pyriform, but less so than those of
the Snipes, and blotched with dusky.

is H

386

RUSTICOLA SYLVESTRIS. THE COMMON
WOODCOCK.

Fig. 32.

Scolopax Rusticola. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 243.

Scolopax Rusticola. Lath. Lid. Ornith. IL 713.

"Woodcock. Mont. Omith. Diet.

Becassc ordinaire. Scolopax llusticola. Temm. Man. d'Omith. II. 673.

Scolopax Rusticola. Woodcock. Flcm. Brit. Anim. 105.

Woodcock. Scolopax rusticola. Sclbv, Illustr. Brit. Ornith. II. 107.

Scolopax Rusticola. Woodcock. Jen. Brit. Vert. Anim. 204.

Scolopax Rusticola. Bonap. Comp. List, 53.

Vpper jtarts variegated with blackish-brown, chestnut-red,
and pale brownish-yellow ; lower parts yellowish-grey, barred
with brown .

Male. — A great favourite Avitli the sj)ortsman, and in
soveviil other respects one of the most interesting of tlie
Grallatorial birds, the Woodcock demands special attention
from tlie ornithologist, whose descriptions, however, ought
not on any occasion to degenerate into such statements as
have reference solely or ])rincipally to the mode of ])rocuring
game, and the quantities of it obtained. A sportsman's
diary is not an ornithologist's guide-book, although it may

COMMON WOODCOCK. 387

supply useful particulars. They who separate the Wood-
cock geuerically from the Snij)es do well ; for it has a more
bulky form, with shorter limbs, a larger and less com-
pressed head.

The bill is about half as long as the head, slender,
straight, ta])ering and compressed for half its length, then
sub-cylindrical or slightly depressed, scarcely at all enlarged
toward the end, scrobi( ulate in its terminal half, but incon-
spicuously ; uj)per mandible with the nasal grooves filled
with a membrane at the base, extending to near the end ;
the ridge, at first narrow and convex, becoming broader
toward the end, with a medial groove ; the tip hard and
obtuse, with a prominence beneath ; lower mandible with
tlu^ sides sloping outwards, and having a shallow groove in
tlie greater part of their extent ; the tip depressed and
obtuse.

The mouth is very narrow ; the palate with several rows
of very small pointed, reversed papilla? ; the asophagus
narrow ; the stomach a roundish, compressed, muscular
gizzard ; the intestine of moderate length ; the cccca rather
long and cylindrical.

Nostrils basal, sub-marginal, small, linear. Eyes rather
large, placed higher and far back. Apertures of ears rather
large. Legs short ; tibia feathered to the joint ; tarsus
rather stout, roundish, Avith about fifteen very broad scu-
tella, the sides reticulated, the hind part with two series of
very small scales. The hind toe small, not much above the
level of the rest, and Avith a short, convex, obtuse cla-\v ; the
anterior toes compressed, the medial greatly exceeding the
lateral, and with a much longer, gently arched, compressed,
rather acute claw ; the outer toe a little longer than th(>
inner, with a shorter, more curved claw.

The plumage is rather firm and compact ; the feathers
broadly rounded. The wings are long, rather broad ; tlie
quills twenty ; the primaries rather broad and rounded ; the
outer considerably incurvate ; the first and second of about
equal length, the rest slowly decreasing; the inner secon-
daries not much elongated, broad, and rounded. Tail short?
rounded, of twelve rather soft feathers.

388 RUSTICOLA SYLVESTRIS.

The bill is flesh-colour, tinged with bluish-grey, becoming
dusky toward the end ; the feet livid flesh-colour ; the claws
brown. The plumage, which is intricately coloured, may be
described as variegated on the \ipper parts with blackish-
brown, chestnut-red, grey, and pale brownish-yellow. The
forehead is grey or yellowish-grey ; the upper and hind part
of the head very deep brown or blackish-lirown, with three
transverse narrow pale red bands. There is a distinct
blackish-brown loral band. The sides and fore part of the
neck are light yellowish-brown, fading on the breast, and
changing on the abdomen into pale yellowish-grey ; all with
narrow transverse bars of dusky broAvn ; the lower wing-
coverts and axillar feathers similar. On the lower part of
the side of the neck is a large patch of blackish-brown ; the
wing-coverts are chestnut-red, barred with grey and dusky ;
the rump and upper tail-coverts of a lighter red, also barred
with dusky. Primary quills, their coverts, and the alula
brownish-black, barred on the outer web with triangular
spots of light red, paler or whitish, and often continuous, on
the flrst quill, and on the inner web marginally barred with
])aler red. The first primary covert stiff" and pointed. Tail-
feathers brownish-black, marginally barred with red, and
having a large round terminal spot, Avhich is grey above and
white beneath.

Length to end of tail 13|- inches ; extent of Avings 24 ;
wing from the flexure 7-j^ ; bill along the ridge l-jV ; tarsus
l-pr; hind toe -fV? its claAV yV; middle toe l^^j i^s claw -^.

Female. — Larger than the male ; similarly coloured, but
with little or no grey on the back; the loAver parts of a
redder tint ; the outer Aveb of the first quill barred in its
whole extent.

Length to end of tail 14;] inches ; extent of Avings 25;
Aving from flexure 8^ ; bill along the ridge 2^\ ; tarsus l-fV ;
hind toe -j^, its claAv -jV ; middle toe lYV? its chnv -j-tj,

Vaiuations. — Lidividuals vary considerably in the tints
of their ])lumage. Sonu' have been sei-n of a yellowish-grey
colour, faijitly mottled Avith darker; and others Avith Axliite

COMMON WOODCOCK. 389

patches. Some entirely wliito iiulividiuils are also rccorchd.
They also vary luiich in size.

Hahits. — Several excellent accounts of the habits of the
Woodcock have been <;iven by British writers, especially by
Mr. Selby, Mr. Yarrell, and ]Mr. Thompson. This celebrated
bird arrives on onr eastern coasts, often in very great
n\inibers, in the end of September and the be<;inning of
October. It has been met with at that season along' the
whole extent of coast from Caithness to the Land's End.
Although, in correspondence with a fancied course of mi-
gration, it has been stated that Woodcocks are more abun-
dant in the south of England and Ireland, and generally
arrive at an earlier period in the southern than in the
northern parts of England, it does not appear, from reccjrded
facts, that this is the case. In Shetland, although they
arrive sometimes as early as anywhere else, they seldom
remain long, these islands being not well adapted to their
habits, but are supposed to proceed southward. In Orkney
they are said, in mild winters, to remain until the period of
their spring migration. In Lewis and Harris they appear
early in October, sometimes not till near the end of that
month, and continue there all the winter, although there is
no wood in these islands. One could hardly suspect their
presence there in any^ considerable numbers, as they are
seldom met with ; but one very severe winter, when the
snow lay many weeks on the ground, and vast numbers of
Rock Pigeons, Thrushes, and other birds were to be seen
lying dead, the frozen brooks presented surprising quantities
of Woodcocks that had perished from want of food. All
along the east coast of Scotland they alight at the season of
the autumnal migration, generally pass a few days not far
from the shore, and then proceed inward. In winter and
early spring scarcely any are to be found there, they having
retired into the interior, where they are most plentiful in the
wooded tracts in the hilly districts. As they have never
been seen arriving on our coasts, nor setting out from them
on their northward migration, it is concluded that they
travel by night. Mr. Selby, however, says : — " A respect-

390 RUSTICOLA SYLVESTRIS.

able person who lived upon the coast, and who, being a keen
pursuer of wild fowl, \\ as in the habit of frequenting the
sea-shore at an early hour in the morning, assured me that
he had more than once noticed the arrival of a flight of
"Woodcocks coming from the north-east just at day-dawn.
His notice was first attracted by a peculiar sound in the air
over his head, that, upon attending to, he found proceeding
from birds descending in a direction almost perpendicular ;
and wliich, upon approaching the shore, separated and flew
towards the interior." Some of them which alighted in
hedges not fiir ofi" he pursued and shot, and found them to
be what he had supposed. Mr. Selby infers from the above
statement that " they fly at a considerable altitude, to avoid,
it is presumed, the currents of air so frequent near the
surface of the earth." Mr. St. John remarks : — " No bird
seems less adapted for a long flight across the sea than the
Woodcock, and it is only by taking advantage of a favour-
able wind that they can accomplish their passage. An
intelligent master of a ship once told me, that in his voyage
to and from Norway and Sweden he has frequently seen
them, tired and exhausted, pitch for a moment or two Avith
outspread wings in the smooth water in the ship's wake ;
and having rested themselves for a few moments, continue
their weary journey."

I do not see why writers on birds do not give the names
of the '•' respectable persons " and " intelligent masters of
ships " from whom they obtain information. When a lord,
baronet, squire, or even a poor professor supplies a fact, of
little value it may be, his name, title, and designation are
carefully recorded. But the Woodcock, which receives no
favours from respectable persons more than poachers, tries
to conceal itself the best way it can, all day long, in some
thicket or wood, resting quietly under a bush or tree, until
toward night, when it leaves its retreat and flies off to some
neighbouring field, meadow, or moor to search for food.
During the day it sits very close, and is not in general to be
flushed without the aid of a dog, or beating the bushes.
Wlien it has cleared the trees, it flies off' in an easy numner,
and requires no particular dexterity to shoot it. Frequently

COMMON WOODCOCK. 391

it flics to no great distance, for, wlienever a suitable !>j>ot
presents itself, it drops suddenly down, and looks for a place
of repose. Woodcocks, however, do not always doze all day
long ; for I have more than on<'e found them in full activity,
searching for food, along brooks and ditches, in woods and
by hedges.

The common earth-worm ap])ears to be the favourite food
of this bird. To obtain it the bill is thrust into the ground
to its full length, as appears from the holes made where it
has been feeding, (-oleopterous insects are also found in its
stomach, and sometimes vegetable fibres. According to M.
Lesson, " the Woodcocks live on insects, worms, slugs, and
other small animals ; for which they search among the grass
and in moist ground, or beneath fallen leaves." The ordinary
flight of the Woodcock is moderately quick, sedate, and
unlike that of the Snipe, which is rapid, undulated, and,
performed by quick beats of the A^angs. It walks with ease,
and on occasions quickly ; but is not addicted to running or
much wading, although it readily goes into the water.

It forms its nest in various situations — in Avoods, about
the margins of thickets, or in open places. It is a slight
hollow, lined Avith bits of t^A^gs and leaves. The eggs, four
in number, are obtusely pyrifonn, an inch and three-fourths
in length, an inch and a third in breadth, yellowish-white,
clouded and spotted with grey and reddish-brown or dusky.
Very considerable numbers breed in Scotland, as Avell as in
England ; fewer in the latter country, it would appear.
Previous to the beginning of the present century, either the
bird did not breed with us, or it had been considered alto-
gether migratory ; and reports as to nest or young were
neglected. But of late years so many instances have been
recorded, that we cannot doubt its perennial residence in
Britain, and have ceased to consider a Woodcock's nest as a
wonderful thing. Indeed, many more cases are known than
have been recorded of the Redshank. Sir F. Mackenzie sent
to the Zoological Society, in July, 1832, an account of the
breeding of some Woodcocks at Conan, in Ross-shire. In
the Magazine of Natural History for 1837, are accounts of
Woodcocks breeding at Brahan Castle, in the same county,

392 RUSTICOLA SVL^'ESTRIS.

and at Castle Forbes, in Aberdeenshire. The Rev. Mr.
Gordon states that " some pairs breed in the larger woods
(of Moray), as at Darnaway and at Cawdor." At the latter
place a nest Avas foinid " on the gi-ound at the foot of a fir
tree, formed of the leaves of the Scots fir, and with four
eggs." I have been favoured with interesting statements by
the Rev. ]\Ir. Smith, and Mr. Burnet of Kemnay.

" During the day-time," Mr. Smith writes, " the Wood-
cock repairs to the elevated and dry parts of the woods,
where it reposes snugly beneath the stunted Scottish firs, to
Avhich it seems partial, — probably because the ground below
tliem is generally less damp than that below the spruce and
other kinds of fir. The Hill of Alvah, towards its summit,
is surrounded by a belt of stunted and bush-like firs of this
kind, beneath which the ground is dry and comparatively
\Narm. I recollect once accompanying Lord Fife's game-
keeper to this particular spot, and in the course of going
round the hill, in the line of these firs, we raised at least
twenty Woodcocks. On being alanned, they uttered, if I
mistake not, a rather sharp quack, consisting of two notes.
During unusually severe weather, the Woodcock, contrary
to his habits when the season is of an ordinary character,
mav sometimes be observed, during the day, feeding at such
small springs and boggy patches in the woods as have
yielded to the frost. This operation he performs by boring
to a great depth with his bill in the mud. AVhile he is thus
employed, his head is driven backward and forward with a
rapidity which, to one who has not witnessed the peifonn-
ance, would almost exceed belief. So soon, however, as he
becomes aware of your presence, he ceases his efibrts, draws
in his bill upon his breast, loAvers his shoulders, squats close
n])on the ground, and continues perfectly motionless. In
such a position, it is not a little difficult to distinguish him
from the hues of the sun'ounding ground, covered as it gene-
rally is by ferns, and such Avithered leaves as, in their
winter tints, harmonize remarkably with the colours of his
plumage."

Mr. Burnet's statement is as follows : — " In my neigh-
bourhood the Woodcock is not uncommon, especially in the

COMMON WOODCOCK. 393

woods about the Baruikiu of Kcht and the Loch of Skene.
At ni<;ht I have sometimes raised it on elevated moors. In
some s(.'asons, however, it is more abimdant than in others.
In the spring there seems an accession to their numbers,
and from April to the end of .July they are to be seen every
night passing, sometimes in small parties of old and young,
over the tree tops in the woods they frequent. They fly
steadilv and rapidly on such occasions, uttering a sound like
the word vcsnojj, accompanied by several strange low croaks,
like those of a frog. I have seen some briskly pass me one
evening within a snudl space at the edge of a planting. In
these motions they seem to take regular rounds, passing the
same spots for many successive nights, as I have taken pains
to observe. They breed twice in the year : first, very early,
as I got renuiins of a young bird pretty far fledged in the
month of April. The only nest I ever got was in a thick
plantation, near the Loch of Skene, on July 1st, the bird
fluttering off at my feet as if wounded. There was merely a
cavity at the root of a tree, with a few tir leaves in a sort of
form. The four eggs I presented to you. In the bilberry-
season the Woodcock resorts to the places where that fruit
grows, and eats great quantities of it. Its dung has then
the purple colour of that of all birds feeding on the same
berry. This species leaves our part of the country about the
month of August, few or none being found betwixt that and
the beginning of October."

The eggs alluded to are broadly ovate, rather pointed,
not depressed at the broader end ; the largest an inch and
ten-twelfths in length, an inch and five-twelfths in breadth ;
the smallest an inch and nine-twelfths by an inch and four-
twelfths ; pale yellowish-grey, densely blotched and spotted
with umber-brown and purplish-grey at the larger end,
sparsely over the other parts, with some faint purplish-grey
markings.

Mr. St. John's account of the Woodcock as observed in
Morayshire is less that of a mere sportsman than of a lover
of nature and an observer of the habits of birds. After
stating that a nest Avith three eggs Mas brought to him on
the 9th of March, 1846, and that in the second week of

394 RUSTICOLA SYL\'ESTflIS.

April a boy brought him a young bird nearly fledged, he
remarks that it must be about the first bird to hatch in the
country. "A few years ago it was supposed that none re-
mained in Britain after the end of winter, except a few
wounded birds, which were unable to cross the sea to their
usual breeding-places. However, since the great increase of
fir plantations, great numbers remain to breed. In the
woods of Alt)Te and Darnaway, as well as in all the other
extensive plantations in the country, during the whole
spring and summer, I see the Woodcocks flying to and fro
every evening in considerable numbers. As early as six or
seven o'clock they begin to fly, uttering their curious cry,
Avhich resembles more the croak of a frog than anything
else ; varied, however, by a short shrill chirp. Down the
shaded course of the river, or through the avenues and
glades of the forest, already dark from the shadow of the
pine-trees, the Woodcocks keep up a continual flight, passing
and repassing in all directions, as if in search of each other.
As the twilight comes on, in the open part of the country,
they leave the shade of the woods, and fly down to the
swamps and pools near the sea -shore and elsewhere to feed
during the night. When watching in the evening for wild
Ducks or Geese near the swamps by the shore, I have con-
stantly seen them pitch close to me, and commence feeding
in their peculiar manner. These birds must probably come
from the Altyre woods, the nearest point of which is at a
distance of two or three miles. In the evening the Wood-
cock's flight is rapid and steady, instead of being uncertain
and owl-like, as it often is in the bright sunshine. I con-
sider their vision to be peculiarly adapted to the twilight,
and even to the darker hours of night, this being the bird's
feeding time. In very severe and protracted snow-storms
and frosts I have seen them feeding at the springs during
the day-time ; but in moderate weather they pass all the
light hours in the solitary recesses of the quietest parts of
the woods, although occasionally one will remain all day in
the swamp, or near the springs on the hill-side, where he
had been feeding during the night."

Several statements have been made, from which it would

COMMON WOODCOCK. 395

appear tliat the Woodcock, habitually or occasionally, carries
its youn^f froiu one place to another — some say with its hill,
others with its feet, the latter mode of conveyance more
numerously attested than the former ; but more observations
are necessary on this point.

Woodcocks vary much in size and remarkably in weight,
from seven or eight, it is stated, to twenty or even more
ounces. As an article of food or of luxurious gastric indul-
gence, no bird is held in more estimation ; and in this
respect it deserves all the encomiums bestowed upon it. Its
price is accordingly high, and poor peo])le are neither per-
mitted to shoot nor can afford to eat Woodcocks, whicli are
quite aristocratic in their final tendencies. They afford
prime sport, too, to idle people, who expatiate Avith delight
upon the pleasures of " cock-shooting." It is very inte-
resting, it would appear, to be informed that the Earl of
Claremont shot fifty couple in one day. Captain Donnan
thirty, and a field-officer of the Tipperary Militia saw fifty
couple bagged by an acquaintance. This happened in Ire-
land, where, if shooting Woodcocks would prevent people
from shooting each other, it Avould be politic and humane to
give " the finest peasantry " in the W'Orld the free range of
the bogs and thickets, and set the gentrj' to dig potatoes or
preach popery out of the island.

The Woodcock is, properly, a regular Avinter resident in
Great Britain and Ireland ; and it does not appear that the
number of those which make their abode there in simimer
and breed, bears any considerable proportion to that of the
individuals which leave us in spring for the northern parts
of Europe. They depart in March, and in the end of that
month or the beginning of the next arrive in Scandinavia,
some of them proceeding to the extreme north. They are
also said to breed in Russia and Siberia ; some in various
more southern countries. Their southern migration extends
to Egypt and Cashmere. They are also stated to inhabit
various parts of India. This species has not hitherto been
observed anywhere in America ; but in the northern parts of
that continent a smaller Woodcock occurs, to Avhich, on
account of its shorter rounded wings and some other pecu-

396 RUSTICOLA SYLVESTRIS.

liarities, a separate genus has been assigned. It is named
Microptera Americana, and -was by Linmicus called Scolopax
minor.

You NO. — The young when fledged differ from the adult
only in having the tints deeper.

Remarks. — The second quill is said by some authors to
be longer than the first. I find it very slightly shorter ;
and if these quills, which are considerably iucurvate, be
straightened, the first becomes decidedly longer.

397

XT. ACUPATOEES. STALKERS.

Stately and sedate birds, as most of those wliith constitute
this order are, they differ as much from the rambUng and
lively Tcntatorial tribes as can -well be conceived. ^lany of
them are of a very large size, some quite small, the majority
of moderate dimensions. Their body is much compressed,
sometimes ratlier robust, generally light, and often verv thin.
The head oblong, compressed, flattened above. The bill is
large, generally compressed, and conical, but varying con-
siderably in form, and sometimes elongated, tapering, sub-
cylindrical, or flattened and expanded at the end.

Their digestive organs, adapted for animal food, and
especially for fishes and reptiles, differ from those of the pre-
ceding orders : the oesophagus being wide ; the stomach large,
roundish, with the muscular coat thin, the epithelium soft ;
the intestine very long and luirrow ; the ca?ca wanting or
small.

The legs are iisually long and slender ; the tibia bare to
a large extent ; the tarsus generally scutellate ; the toes four,
the hind toe large, and placed on the same level as the rest.

The plumage is various, mostly rather loose, Avith some
of the feathers elongated, and having disunited filaments.
The wings large and broad ; the tail short.

These birds feed on fishes, reptiles, Crustacea, and othei
aquatic animals. They frequent the shores of the sea, estu-
aries, rivers, and lakes, or reside in marshy places, among the
rank herbage. Their flight is light or buoyant, but mostly
slow. They walk in a sedate and rather gi'aceful manner,
often wade upon the mud and sand, and sometimes stand for

398 AUCUPATORES. STALKERS.

hours in the water, watching for their prey. Most of them
are shy and suspicious, either removing by flight from the
approach of man, or concealing themselves among the herbage.
They form very large, generally slovenly and flat nests, wliich
they place on the ground or on trees, and lay few, from two
to five, light-coloured eggs. The young, at first scantily
clothed with down, remain in the nest or its neighbourhood,
until able to fly.

The Herons, Ardeinae, the typical birds of this order, are
in external aspect very distinct from all the other Grallato-
rial tribes ; but the Tantalinse, the only other birds belonging
to it, have some affinity to the Tringinne, and resemble the
Curlews. The species are much more numerous in tropical
than in temperate countries ; but even in the colder some
occur, at least in the breeding season. Most of them are
more or less migTatory, and some perform long journeys.
Very few are permanently resident in Britain ; but, with
stragglers, we make up a pretty considerable list.

399

AllDEIN^E.

HERONS AND ALLIED SPECIES.

The genera which collectively constitute the family of
Ardeinne are Ciconia, Argala, Mycteria, Ardea, Egretta,
Nycterodius, Botaurus, Anastomus, Scopus, Cancroma, and
some others formed of sections of the genus Ardea of the
older writers, that is, of those who flourished thirty or forty
years ago. It is chiefly in the skeleton, digestive organs,
wings, and feet that these genera present easily appreciable
characters of general application. The hill, although differing
little in form in three-fourths of the genera, varies consider-
ably, even in them, as to length, thickness, and other circum-
stances ; and in the rest exhibits remarkable peculiarities.

A Heron at flrst sight seems to have little affinity to the
other groups of the birds usually called AVaders or Gralla-
tores ; but a closer inspection discloses gradations of specific
forms by which it is connected with them. Thus, our
common Heron is obviously allied to the common Stork.
This latter is very similar in form and plumage to Anas-
tomus, which, however, has the bill considerably modified,
and the toes and claws longer; Anastomus resembles (Edi-
curnuis magnirostris in its bill, and does not differ widely from
it in plumage. Now CEdicnemus belongs to the family of
Charadriinai, or Plovers, which are allied to the Bustards,
and these latter in several respects resemble the Perdicina^.
Some Cranes so much resemble Storks or Herons that most
authors have referred them to the same group, although they
present well-marked distinctive characters. In the general
form, and especially in the structure of the legs, toes, wings,

400 AKDEIN.E

and tail, the connection of Ardea -with Tantalus is obvious.
Even the hill of the latter has a considerable resemblance to
that of the Ardeinte, -while the bareness of its head more par-
ticularly indicates an affinity to the Storks. The Tantali
almost blend with the Spoonbills and Ibises, and the latter
are scarcely distinguishable from the Curlews, -which belong
to the family of Scolopacina.^ or Snipes. Some of the smaller
Ardeiufc, of the Bittern genus, seem in structure and habits
to be related even to the Rails and Gallinules, -which are of
themselves allied to some of the Rasores. But, to explain
these relations fully would require a larger space than can
well be afforded in a work on the birds of a particular
country. What has been said, however, -will shew that the
Ardeinae are by no means so isolated as they might at first
seem to be.

In like manner, it may be remarked, the affinities of any
particular group, family, or genus of the Grallatorial Birds
might be shewn to have complex affinities with other groups.
The Herons themselves, from feeding chiefly on fish, and
having a very wide oesophagus, are allied to the piscatorial
swimming birds. But, without entering into such extended
considerations, 1 think it must be obvious to most persons,
who are not authors of systems founded on sxipcrficial cha-
racters, or partizans blinded by prejudice and obstinate from
pride, that internal structure must be studied before a natural
arrangement can be discovered.

The Ardeina? cannot be defined by many characters
equally applicable to all the species. Perhaps the following-
general features may afford a sufficiently definite idea of
them : —

They are birds of very large, moderate, or very small
size. The body seems large when viewed laterally, but is
much compressed, and in the smaller species extremely nar-
rowed ; the neck long and generally slender ; the head
oblong, much compressed, flattened in front. The bill is
long, straight, stout, tapering, compressed; the upper man-
dible with its dorsal line nearly straight, the ridge broad at
tlie base, narrowed in the rest of its extent, the sides sloping
outwards, the edges thin, the tip acuminate. The mouth is

HERONS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 101

rather wide, luul capable of bein<j luucli dilated in conse-
quence of the flexibility of the crura of the lower jaw. The
palate is convex, anteriorly Avith two papillate ridges, and a
median prominent line which rinis to the point of the man-
dible. The posterior aperture of the nares is linear. The
tongue long, slender, trigonal, tapering, sagittate at the
base, with a large pointed papilla on each side, the tip
acute. Although there is a large gular sac, the skin on the
throat is feathered. The oesophagus is very wide in its
whole length, with its walls thin, and its inner coat longi-
tudinally plicate ; the proventriculus very wide, its glands
forming a broad belt, at the upper margin of which are
numerous large mucous crypts in groups. The stomach, a
very large rounded sac, of which the muscular coat is ex-
tremely thin, and formed of very slender fasciculi, with the
inner coat thin, soft, and smooth. Attached to it is a glo-
bular pyloric lobe. The intestine is very long and extremely
narrow ; at the commencement of the rectum is an oblong
small caput coecum, but no lateral coecal appendages ; the
cloaca very large and globular.

The trachea, wliich is composed of numerous, very thin
rings, is considerably flattened and gi-adually narrowed ; the
last four rings dimidiate. A pair of cleido-tracheal nniscles
pass from the thyroid bone to near the middle of the furcula.
The lateral muscles, thin and slender at the upper part,
become thicker below, and extend over the whole surface
before and behind. A slip from them, on each side, extends
to the last half-ring. The bronchi are wide, of numerous
half-rings, their membrane large.

The eyes arc of moderate size, generally surrounded with
a bare space. The nostrils linear, in the small nasal mem-
brane, from which a groove extends anteriorly, but in some
genera is obsolete. The aperture of the ear is small and
roundish.

The tibia3 are very long, and generally bare to a great
extent ; the tarsi long and rather stout ; the toes four, of
which the first is slender, and placed nearly on a level with
the anterior, which are long and rather slender, scutellate
above, flattened beneath, and connected by basal membranes.

c c

402 ARDEINtE.

The claws arc short or of moderate length, arched, generally
compressed, and pointed ; the thin edge of that of the third
toe often moderate.

The plumage is generally full, soft and blended on the
neck and lower parts, as well as on the hind part of the
back. The feathers, which vary in form, have a small down-
])lumulc. Those on the head, nape, lower part of the neck,
fore part of the back and scapulars, are more or less elon-
gated. The wings are very large, broad, somewhat rounded ;
some of the inner secondaries about the length of the longest
primary when the wing is closed. The tail is always short,
and of twelve or ten weak, rounded feathers.

The skeleton varies in the proportion of its parts ; but in
the common Heron, Ardea cinerea, may be briefly described
as follows : — The cranium is oblong, flattened anteriorly,
with a strong transverse ridge on the occiput ; the bony
septum between the eyes Avith a large vacant space ; three
large spaces fllled with membrane only at the base of the
skull anteriorly. The jaws are straight and elongated ; the
nasal vacuitv oblong and of small extent. The cervical ver-
tebrae are very elongated and much compressed ; the upper
five long and peculiarly articulated, the lower part of each
upper vertebra passing far over the joint behind, while the
upper anterior part of the lower vertebra passes upwards.
There are in all forty-three vertebra^ of which sixteen are
cervical, nine dorsal, eleven sacral, and seven coccygeal.
The ribs are very slender, the first rudimentary, the second
incomplete, the last two without medial processes. The
sternum is very short ; its body of moderate breadth, con-
cave, with two deep sinuses behind ; the carina \ery promi-
nent, thin, with a curved convex outline. The clavicles or
covacoid bones long and of moderate strength ; the furcula
articulated to the tip of the carina, of moderate width, rather
stout, with a small process projecting upwards in its angle.
The scapula) are slender and arcuate ; the humeral bone
very long and stout ; the cubital bones about a fourth
longer ; two carpal bones ; the pollical bone slender ; the
two metacarpal bones long and united at the end ; the outer
first digital bone large and broad ; the terminal bone slender ;

HERONS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 403

the inner digital bone very snuill. Tlif jjclvis of moderate
size, witli the ischiatic bone united, the pubie bone slender and
free, unless at the base. The femur is very short ; the til)ia
extremely long; the tibula slender, united, and extending
half-way down ; the tarsus long, slender, of greater breadth
than depth ; the digits long and slender; the first toe on the
same plane, with two phalanges and a basal bone ; the
second with three ; the third with four ; the fourth five.

The skeleton thus differs considerably from that of the
Gruinae. The skull is more elongated, and flattened instead
of being convex above ; the nasal sinus short, instead of
being very long ; the upper cervical vcrtebrai are very long
in the Herons, short in the Cranes ; the sternum short, and
of moderate breadth in the former, long and narrow in the
latter ; the furcula articulated in the Herons, united in the
Cranes ; the pelvis moderate in the former, very large in
the latter; besides other differences.

The affinities of the genera being complex, it is impos-
sible to arrange them in a circular or quinary order, unless a
single organ be taken as supplying characters. It is amusing
to see those who profess to take the whole organization into
account, usually forced to confine their regards to a few
organs. Thus Mr. Swainson betakes himself to the bill ; for
although the feet in several instances, and other parts in
others, are spoken of, the bill is the only organ adduced in
all his generic characters. He has, besides, thrust among
the Ardeina3 two genera, Platalca and Hocmatopus, wliich
belong to two distinct families. None but the most super-
ficial observer could think of placing an Oyster-catcher
beside a Heron, differing as they do in structure and habits.
Hcematopus having three toes, while the rest have four, is
assumed by him as the " Grallatorial type," it being neces-
sary, in a quinary arrangement, that such should be. Yet,
not at all strange to tell, in another part of the same volume,
Hocmatopus is assumed as belonging to the " C'haradriada?,"
or family of Plovers. It is disheartening to find nature
thus perverted by ignorant pretenders to science, and weari-
some to point out their errors.

The Ardeina) are essentially carnivorous, and more espc-

404 ARDEIX^.

cially ichthyophagous, as is sho-vvn by the structure of their
digestive organs, as well as by their habits. They feed also
on Crustacea, mollusca, Avonus, insects, occasionally reptiles,
small quadrupeds, and young birds. Those of the Stork
kind, especially if domesticated or allowed to frequent cities,
devour with Yulturine appetite any animal substance they
can find. They walk sedately, often gracefully ; wade into
shallow water in search of prey ; often stand patiently wait-
ing its an'ival, when they suddenly jerk out their previously
retracted neck, seize it with their strong-pointed bill, and
generally swallow it entire. They have a quiet, seemingly
heavy, but in reality buoyant flight, capable of being pro-
tracted to great distances. Their voice is generally a harsh,
grating scream, vrithout modulation, or a kind of guttural
croak ; but some emit a booming or drumming noise. They
nestle on the ground or on trees, often in large communities,
forming a large flat nest of twigs and other rude materials,
and lay from two to five eggs, of a broadly elliptical form,
and generally of a light greenish-blue colour. The young,
at first bare or scantily clothed with coarse down, remain in
the nest until able to fly, unless attacked, when they often
leave it ; but are incapable of running with the speed of the
young Cursitores. On being pursued or surprised, the old
birds do not squat or run, but fly ofi". Species occur in all
countries, but are more numerous toward the equator. They
frequent marshes, the shores of lakes, rivers, and even the
sea. Only one species is common in Britain ; but eleven
others occur there, most of them as accidental or occasional
visitants.

SYIfOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AKD SPECIES.

GENL'S I. BOTAURUS. BlTTERN.

Bill longer than the head, slender, straight, compressed,
tapering to a fine point, and with the edges sharp and serru-
late. Legs of moderate length ; tibia bare for a short space

HERONS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 405

only, or entirely feathered ; tur.siis with very broad anterior
scutella; toes long, with long slender claws. Feathers of
the sides and lower ])art of the neck mnch elongated ; on
the former directed obliquely backwards, so as to cover the
downy part of the neck behind. Wings large, with the
third and second quills longest ; tail very short, of ten .soft
feathers.

1. Botaurus stellaris. European Bittern. Length al)out
thirtv inches ; one inch of the tibia bare. Plumage li«i:ht
reddish-yellow, variegated with dusky ; the upper part of
the head and the greater portion of the scapulars purplish-
black.

2. Botaurus lentiginosus. The American Bittern. Lcnc^th
about twenty-six inches ; one inch of the tibia bare. Plumage
variegated with yellowish-brown, dark l)rown, and reddish ;
a broad band of brownish-yellow from the cheek to the
nape, and beneath it an obliciue band of black.

3. Botaurus minutus. The Little Bittern. Lenffth about
fourteen inches ; tibia entirely feathered. U])per part of the
head, back, scapulars, and tail glossy greenish-black ; lower
parts and smaller wing-coverts light reddish-yellow.

4. Botaurus comatus. The Squacco Bittern. Length
about eighteen inches ; tibia entirely feathered. Upj)er part
of the head pale yellow, with dusky lines ; an occipital
plume of long, linear, acuminate white feathers, each with
two black lines.

GEXITS II. NYCTICORAX. XIGIIT-HERON.

Bill scarcely longer than the head, stoiit, nearly straight,
compressed, tapering to a point, and with the edges sharp.
Legs of moderate length ; tibia bare for about a fourth of its
length ; tarsus scutellate above, reticulate below ; toes rathe v
long, with moderate compressed claws ; Avings broad, with
the second and third quills longest, the first a little shorter ;
tail short, even, of twelve broad feathers

L Nycticorax Ardeola. The Grey Night-Heron. Three
white, black-tipped, linear occipital feathers ; crown, nape,
fore part of back, and scapulars greenish-black.

406 ARDELNiE.

GEXXS III. ARDEA. HERON.

Bill longer than the head, stout, straight, compressed,
tapering to a point, and -vvith the edges sharp and serrulate.
Legs very long, rather slender ; tihia bare for more than a
third of its length ; tarsus anteriorly scutcllatc ; toes very
long ; claws moderately arched, compressed, acute. Wings
ample, the outer four quills nearly equal. Tail short, nearly
even, of twelve feathers.

1. Ardea cinerea. The Grey Heron. Upper parts and
sides bluish-grey; forehead white; pendent occipital crest
black ; fore-neck white, Avith longitudinal black spots.

J^. Ardea purpurea. The T'urjile Heron. Upper parts
light greyish-blue; edge of wing light red; neck longitudi-
nally banded with gi-eenish-black and light red ; tail black
toward the end.

GENUS IV. EGRETTA. EGRET.

Bill much longer than the head, strong but rather
slender, straight, compressed, tapering to a point, and with
the edges sharp and often serrulate. Legs extremely long,
slender ; tibia bare for half its length or more ; tarsus ante-
riorly scutcllatc ; toes long, slender ; claws arched, com-
pressed, acute. AVings ample, the outer three quills nearly
equal. Tail short, nearly even. Four longitudinal series of
very elongated feathers on the back.

1. Egretta nigrirostris. Black-hilled Egret. Length about
forty-four inches. Bill black; bare preocular space verdi-
gris-green ; plumage white.

2. Egretta alba. Yellow-billed White Egret. Bill yellow ;
bare preocular space verdigris-green ; plumage white.

3. Ardea Garzetta. Little White Egret. Length about
twenty-four inches. Bill black ; bare preocular space green ;
phmiage white.

4. Egretta russata. Bujf'-baehcd Egret. Hair-like fea-
thers of hind-head and neck and dorsal plumes rcddish-
vellow ; fore ])art of breast and back pale cream-colour ; the
rest of the plumage white.

HERONS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 407

GENUS V. CICONIA. STORK.

Bill much longer than the head, straight, stont, conical,
moderately compressed. Legs very long, rather slender ;
tibia bare for about half its length ; tarsus reticulated ;
anterior toes of moderate length, Avebbed at the base ; claws
short, obtuse. Wings long, ample, the third quill longest.
Tail rather short, rounded.

1, Cicotiia alba. IVhite Stork, liill and feet red; plu-
mage Avhite ; scapulars, quills, and larger coverts black.

2. Ciconia nigra. Black Stork. Bill and feet red ; plu-
mage brownish-black, glossed with purple and green ; breast
and abdomen white.

408

BOTAURUS. BITTERN.

The Bitterns are generally distinguishable from the other
birds of this family by the extreme compression of theii*
body, their shorter legs and proportionally longer claws, the
great elongation of the feathers of the neck, Avhicli is bare
behind nearly in its whole length ; their- oblong, extremely
compressed head ; and very slender, straight bill. The
genus, however, is not clearly separated from the others,
into all of which it graduates. Ardea stellaris and Aidea
minor of authors may be assumed as among the most cha-
racteristic species ; while Ai'dea spcciosa, Aixlea minuta,
Ardea exilis, and other small species are allied to the Night
Herons. It is by these smaller species that an apparent
transition is made to the family of Rails, Water-hens, and
Jacanas, which they greatly resemble in form, often in
colouring, and not a Httle in habits, although the internal
structure of the two gi'oups is quite distinct, there being no
blending of either the skeleton or the digestive organs. The
little Bitterns have by some been fomied into a genus, to
which the name of Ardeola has been given ; but this sepa-
ration I think unnecessary. The general characters of the
Botauri seem to be the folloAving : —

Bill longer than the head, slender, straight, compressed,
tapering to a fine point : upper mandible with the dorsal
line almost straight, being but slightly declinate toward the
end ; the ridge flattened for a short space, then narrow ; the
nasal groove deep and extending to near the end ; the sides
convex ; the edges sharp, serrulate, with a notch close to the
acute tip ; lower mandible with the angle very long and ex-
tremely narrow ; the dorsal line almost straight and slightly
ascending ; the sides slightly concave and nearly erect ; the

BOTAURUS. mXTERN.

409

tip acuminate ; the gape-line stiaiglit, being- deflected only
at the base.

Tongue long, slender, trigonal ; (esophagus very wide ;
stomach roundish, with very thin walls and a round ])yloric
lobe ; intestine long, narrow ; eoccum oblong.

Nostrils linear. Eyes large. A])erture of ears rather
small. Legs of moderate length ; til)ia bare for a short
space or entirely feathered ; tarsus with very broad anterior
scutella ; toes long, the first strong, the second nuich longer
than the fourth, the outer two connected by a small basal
web ; claws long, slender, that of tlie first toe stouter and
more arched, of the middle toe with the inner edge pectinate.

Plumage very full and soft; the hind part of the neck
covered only with down, but concealed by the very elon-
gated feathers of its sides and lower part, which are directed
oblicpiely backwards. Wings large, of twenty-eight quills,
of which the second and tliird are longest ; inner secondaries
nearly as long when the wing is folded. Tail very short,
nearly even, of ten soft feathers.

The Bitterns reside in marshes, and by the sides of lakes
and streams, where, in a hideling manner, they search for
reptiles, fishes, and other aquatic animals. The males, in
the breeding season, make a loud booming or bellowing
noise. The eggs, from three to five, are elliptical, of one
colour, generally grey, olivaceous, or white. The young
remain in the nest until fledffed.

Fig. 33.

410

BOTAURUS STELLARIS. THE EUROPEAN
lilTTERN.

COMMON BITTERN. MIREDRVM. BIMPY-COSS. BFTTER-BUMP. BITTER-
BUM. BOG-BUMPEK. BUMBLE.

Fig. 34.

Ardea stellaris. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 239.

Ardea stellaris. Lath. Ind. Orn. IL 680.

Ardea stellaris. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 329.

Bittern. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Heron Grand Butor. Ardea stellaris. Temm. Man. d'Orn. IL 580.

Ardea stellaris. Flom. Brit. Anim. 95.

Common Bittern. Ardea stellaris. Selb. lUustr. II. 30.

Ardea stellaris. Common Bittern. Jen. Brit. Yert. An. 190.

Botaurus stellaris. Bonap. Conip. List, 48.

Lcnfith about thirty inches; one inch of the tibia bare.
Adult light rcddisJi-ijcllow, witJi the upper part of the head
and the greater portion of the scapulars purplish-black ; the
rest of the upper parts transversely undulated U'ith dusky;
the lower jjar^s paler, with the markings on the fore-neck
larger ami more brown, those along the middle of the breast
black and longitudinal. Young similar.

Male. — Although the Bittern has a very bulky appear-
ance compared with that of many other species of this
family, it is in reality a very slender bird, its size being

EUROPEAN BITTERN. 411

chiefly made up of" feiitliers. It is much smaller and of a
less elongated form than the Grey Heron. Its body is ex-
tremely compressed behind ; the neck long and of moderate
thickness ; but both seem large on account of the elongation
and arrangement of the feathers. The head is oblong and
compressed.

The bill, which is about the same length as the head, or
a little longer, is straight, rather slender, compressed, and
tapering to a point ; the u])per mandible with the dorsal line
straight for nearly two-thirds, then slightly declinate ; the
ridge flattened at the base, then narrowed and convex, the
groove extending nearly to the end ; the sides flat at the
base, little convex in the rest of their extent ; the edges
sharp, serrulate, with a notch close to the tip, which is
acute ; the lower mandible with the angle very long and
extremely narrow ; the dorsal line straight and ascending ;
the sides slightly convex ; the edges sharp, serrulate ; the
tip acuminate ; the gape-liuc almost straight.

Internally the upper mandible is considerably concave,
with three longitudinal ridges. The tongue is an inch and
ten-twelfths long, deeply emarginate at the base, narrow,
trigonal, tapering to the point. The a'sophagus is seven-
teen inches long ; for two inches of the width of an inch and
a half, then contracting to eight-twelfths, but presently en-
larging to an inch and two-twelfths, and so continuing until
its entrance into the thorax, when it enlarges to an inch and
ten-twelfths ; its walls very thin. The stomach is large,
thin, rounded, with a roundish pyloric lobe. The intestine
is six feet seven inches in length, from three-twelftlis to two-
twelfths in width ; the rectum wider, with an oblong coecal
head ; the cloaca globular. The lobes of the liver are very
unequal, and the gall-bladder is an inch and a half long,
but only three-twelfths in breadth.

The nostrils are linear, seven-and-a-half-twelfths long.
The eyes large. The aperture of the ear rather small, its
greatest diameter being four-twelfths. The feet are of
moderate length, stout ; the tibia bare for the space of only
an inch ; the tarsus with very broad scutella before, reticu-
late behind. Toes long, stout, scutellate above, flattened

412 BOTAURUS STELLARIS.

beneath ; the first strong, the second much longer than the
fourth, ■\vliich is connected with the tliird by a small basal
web ; tlie first with twelve, the second twenty-two, the third
thirty-four, the fourth twenty-four scutella. The cluws are
long, slender ; that of the first toe stouter and more arched,
the rest being but slightly so ; all compressed, tapering ; the
inner edge of the third pectinate, with about thirty teeth.

The plumage is very full and soft ; the feathers oblong
or ovate, obtuse, with loose margin ; those of the head and
najic oblong and elongated ; of the sides and lower part of
the neck also much elongated, and on the former directed
obliquely backwards, so to cover the hind-neck, which is
covered with down only in its whole length ; the scapulars
long, but not remarkably so ; the feathers on the hind part
of the back rather downy. The wings are large, extending
nearly to the end of the tail when closed, of twenty-eight
quills, of which the third and second are longest, the first
almost equal ; the inner secondaries nearly as long as the
outer primaries in the closed wing. The tail is very short,
nearly even, of ten soft feathers.

The bill is greenish-yellow, with the ridge of the upper
mandible brown ; the bare spaces on the head greenish-
yellow ; the irides light yellow ; the legs, tarsi, and toes
anteriorly greenish-brown, posteriorly yellowish green ; the
claws brown. The upper part of the head and occiput are
purplish-black. The general colour of the plumage is light
reddish-yellow, variegated with brown and black, the mark-
ings transverse and luidulated on the sides and hind part of
the neck, ui)per and lower wing-coverts, and the part of the
back behind the scapulars. On these and the fore part of
the back the predominant colour is black, tinged with
purple, the edges of the feathers only being indented with
yellowish-red. The quills are blackish-brown, tinged with
greyish-blue, and undulatingly barred Avith yellowish-red.
The tail is lighter and more narrowly barred. On the fore-
neck the markings are larger, more brown, and assume
somewhat of a longitudinal direction. The fore part and
middle of the breast are longitudinally streaked with
brownish-black.

EUROPEAN BITTERN. 413

Length to end of tail 30 inches ; extent of wind's 46 ;
hill al()n<; the rid^e 3, along the lower mandi])le 4 ; winji;
from Hexurc 13^; tail 4^; tarsus 3-j^ ; hind toe 1^-^-, its
claw l-[2j ; second toe 2-^, its claw 1-^ ; third toe 3-j^, its
claw l-f^ ; fourth toe ^-j^^, its claw ■^.

Female. — The female is similar to the male.

Habits. — The Bittern, which is said to he abundant in
most of the marshy districts on the Continent, and to have
formerly been plentiful in England, is now of rare occur-
rence in any part of Britain, and especially in Scotland,
where I have, however, seen many specimens, and even
obtained one for dissection. Montagu states that " in the
breeding season it is only found in the less frequented reedy
marshes and swampy moors well clothed with rushes, where
it forms a nest on some tump, by collecting a quantity of
sedge or other coarse plants together. It lays four or live
eggs of a light olive-green colour, inclining to cinereous.
At this season the male makes a singular bellowing noise,
vulgarly supposed to be produced by the bird putting his
bill into a reed. It is roused with difficulty from its lurking-
place, flies heavily, and frequently lights again at a small
distance ; so that it becomes an easy prey to the sportsman.
We are informed, however, that sometimes it soars to a pro-
digious height in the air with a spiral ascent, making at the
same time a singidar noise. In the winter these birds leave
the more moimtainous swamps, where it is probable the
greater part breed, and become more scattered in the low
moist situations ; and in severe weather are found on the
sedgy banks of rivers and streams of water. It is, however,
become much more scarce than formerly, since its flesh has
been accounted a delicacy; and the poulterers value it at
not less than half-a-guinea. The principal food of this bird
is small fish, frogs, and insects ; the warty lizard also
becomes its prey, as we have found by dissection."

The booming or bellowing noise emitted by this bird has
given rise to a great deal of fanciful conjecture. I have
never heard it, and cannot pretend to account for it. Mr.

414 BOTAURUS STELLARIS.

Mudie, who appears to consider himself quite faniihar with
it, describes it tlius : — He is wandering in the twihglit by
the side of a bog, and liears a rustle among the reeds,
" accompanied by the brush of a rather powerful wing.
You look round the dim horizon, but there is no bird ;
another rustle of the wing, and another, still weaker and
weaker, but not a moving thing between you and the sky
around. You feel rather disappointed — foolish, if you are
daring ; fearful, if you are timid. Anon a burst of uncouth
and savage laughter breaks over you, piercingly or rather
gratinglv loud, and so unwonted and odd, that it sounds as
if the voices of a bull and a horse were combined, the former
breaking down his bellow to suit the neigh of the latter, in
mocking you from the sky. That is the love-song of the
Bittern, with which he serenades his mate ; and uncouth
and harsh as it sounds to you, that mate hears it with far
more pleasure than she would the sweetest chorus of the
grove ; and when the surprise with which you are at first
taken is over, you begin to discover that there is a sort of
modulation in the singular sound. As the bird utters it he
wheels in a spiral, expanding his voice as the loops widen,
and sinking it as they close ; and though you can just
dimly discover him between you and the zenith, it is worth
while to lie down on your back and watch the style of his
flight, which is as fine as it is peculiar. The sound comes
better out, too, when you are in that position ; and there is
an echo, and, as you would readily imagine, a shaking of the
ground ; not that, according to the tale of the poets, the
bird thrusts his bill into the marsh, and shakes that with
his booming, though (familiar as I once Avas for years with
the sound and all the observable habits of Bitterns)' some
kindly critic, on a former occasion, laboured to convert me
from that heresy. A quagmire Avould be but a sorry instru-
ment even for a Bittern's music ; but when the liittern
booms and bleats overhead, one certainly feels as if the earth
were shaking; but it is probably nothing nu)re than the
general affection of the sentient system by tlie jarring upon
the ear — an affection Avhich we more or less feel in the case
of all harsh and grating sounds, more especially a\ lien they

EUROPEAN BITTERN. 415

are new to us." What a pleasant thing it is to be able to
write copiously and witli ease on a subject about which one
knows nothing ! Mr. Mudic's Bittern is evidently the oti-
spring of his line imagination, and its booming is the drum-
ming of a Snipe, That lie has mistaken one thing for
another is very evident ; for when attcm])ting to describe
the noises made by the Snipe, he quite mismanages.

The Bittern is an unsocial bird, deriving its chief enjoy-
ment from an exclusive attention to its own interests ; and
thus its habits present nothing particularly pleasing. It
reposes by day, concealed among the reeds or other tall
aquatic plants, standing with its neck bent, and its head
drawn back between its shoulders. When so situated, it
allows a person to come quite close upon it before it takes
wing; and when it flies off, it proceeds but to a sliort
distance, and then alights. It pairs in February, and at
that season has a mode of expressing its tender feelings
quite in correspondence with its uncouth manners. In the
evening twilight it rises on wing in a spiral direction, emit-
ting at intervals a bellowing noise, which, however, it also
gives out when on the ground. Its nest, which is concealed
among the long herbage is a bulky and rudely-constructed
mass of sticks, reeds, and sedges. The eggs, four or five in
niunber, are of a pale yellowish-green colour. The young
continue in or about the nest until they are able to fly. A
few instances of its breeding in England are given. It is
probable, however, that by far the greater number of indi-
viduals that are found in Britain are visitants only. In
some years they are said to be more numeroxis than in
others. Thus, Mr. Selby remarks that, in the winter of
1830, "a more than usual nmnber of Bitterns has been
killed in various parts of the kingdom ; and I am credibly
informed, that no less than ten were exposed for sale in one
morning at Bath." Mr. Ileysham also states that, " during
tlie months of December, January, and February last (1830-
31), no less than eight specimens of the Bittern were killed
in this part of the county (Carlisle.)" This is the more
remarkable, as only a single specimen has been met with in
the same district for the last ten or twelve years. It would

416 BOTAURIS STELLARIS.

appear from the public journals, that aboiit the same period
of the year others wore killed in Durham, Yorkshire, Devon-
shire, tJcc. Sir William Jardine observes : — " In the south
of Scotland a similar comparative abundance occurred ;
several -were brought to mv in Dumfriesshire ; and, on a
visit to Edinburgh, it was found that the bird-preservers
there had obtained also a more than usual number of speci-
mens." Mr. Thompson, after giving a long Hst of specimens
killed in Ireland, remarks : — " It Avill have been observed
that, in the winter of 1830-31, Bitterns were more than com-
monly frequent in Dublin and the neighbouring country —
in ^^'aterf()rd and perhaps in Down ; thus implying an
unusual migration to the island,"

The Bittern is said to visit Scandinavia in summer, and
to be found in Ilussia and Siberia. Thence it extends
southward over the whole of Europe, and in Asia as far as
India, China, and Japan. In our own country it is not
quite so rare as is commonly supposed. There is no recent
account of its visiting Shetland or Orkney, and I have not
heard of its occurrence in the outer Hebrides. The Rev.
Mr. Gordon says it is " occasionally met with as stragglers
about the Loch of Spynie and other marshes." I have seen
specimens obtained at the Loch of Strathbcg, in Fyvie, and
near Aberdeen, and one near Banff. The Rev. Mr. Smith
writes : — " I have known at least three specimens of the
Bittern being shot, at distant intervals, among the reeds
surrounding the Loch of Strathbcg. About eighteen years
ago, a very fine specimen was shot on the farm of Baltic,
near Banff." In the county of Kincardine it appears to be
extremely rare ; but in that of Forfar of not very unfrequent
occurrence, and especially near Forfar and on the Tay. In
the southern division of Scotland it has frequently been
killed. In England it has occurred in almost every district ;
and Mr. Thompson gives many instances of its mishaps in
Ireland. Like every other rare bird, everyone's hand is
against it. I never knew a person addicted to zoological
pursuits who did not destroy ten times more living creatures
than he needed ; and 1 know only one keen and accurate
observer of birds who never shot at all.

417

BOTAURUS LENTIGINOSUS. THE AMERICAN
BITTERN.

FRECKLED HERON.

Heron lentigineux. Ardea lentiginosa. Tcmm. Man. d'Ornith. IV. 381.
American Hittem. Botaurus Mokolio. Selby, Illustr. II. 34.
American Bittern. Ardca minor. "Wils. Amer. Ornith.YIII. 3.5, PI. Go, f. 3.
Freckled Ileron. Ardea lentiginosa. Mont. Ornith. Diet. Supplt.
ArdeaMokoho. Waglcr. Syst. Avium.

American Bittern. Ardea minor. Audub. Amer. Omith. Biogr. IV. 29G.
Ardea lentig:ino3a. American Bittern. Jenyns, Brit. Vert. Anim. 191.
Botaurus lentiginosus. Bonap. Comp. List. 48.

Lotgtli about twoity-six incites, one uicli of the tibia bare ;
the upper part of the head greyish-brown ; a light yellowish
streak over the eye, a dusky streak from behind it, a broad
hand of brownish-yellow from the cheek to the nape, and
beneath it an oblique band of black; the upper parts of the
body variegated witJt, yellowish brown, dark-brown, and red-
dish, the margin of the feathers closely undulated and trans-
versely barred; tlie throat tchite, with brown markings, the
fore part of the neck, and the lower ])arts of the body pale
yellowish, with numerous elongated streaks of reddish-brown,
dotted and edged with darker. Young similar, but with the
colours duller.

INIale. — This species, although much inferior to the last
in size, bears a close resemblance to it in form, and is not
very dissimilar in colouring. Its body is extremely com-
pressed ; the neck long and thick ; the head small, oblong,
and much compressed. The bill is longer than the head,
moderately stout, much compressed, tapering to the point ;
the upper mandible with the dorsal line straight for nearly

D D

418 BOTAURUS LENTIGIXOSUS.

two-thiads, then slightly decUnato, the ridge broad and some-
\vliat flattened at the base, then gradually narrowed and
convex, the nasal sinus oblong, basal, with a groove extend-
insr nearly to the end, the sides erect and flattened at the
base, convex in the middle, the edges sharp, somewhat
serrulate towards the end, the tip narrow, with a distinct
notch on each side ; the lower mandible Avith the angle very
long and narrow, the lower outline of the crm-a straight, their
sides flattened and sloping a little outwards, the dorsal line
ascending, the edges sharp, direct, obscurely serrulate, the
tip finely acuminate; the gape-line nearly straight.

Internally the upper mandible is considerably concave,
with three longitudinal ridges; the lower deeply concave,
with its crura very elastic, so that the mouth, which measures
ten-twelfths of an inch across, may be greatly expanded.
The tongue is two inches long, slender, trigonal, flattened
above, saggitate at the base, with a single pointed papilla on
each side, its tip slender and bluntish. The oesophagus is
fifteen inches long, two inches wide at the commencement,
gradually contracting to half an inch, but within the thorax
an inch in width; its walls extremely thin ; the proventri-
culus very wide, with a belt of oblong glandules, ten-twelfths
in breadth. The stomach is of moderate size, an inch in
diameter, roundish, membranous, with circular tendinous
spaces, and smooth inner coat. The intestine is four feet
seven inches in length, extremely narrow, its breadth in the
duodenal part being only two-twelfths, and toward the
coecum one-twelfth and a half. The rectum, which is four
inches long, has its anterior extremity rounded, with a
minute papilliform termination. The cloaca very large and
globular.

The nostrils arc linear, seven-twelfths long. The eyes
four-twelfths in breadth. The legs are rather long, and
stout ; the tibia bare for the space of an inch ; the tarsus
rather short, roundish, with about eighteen very broad
anterior scutella ; the toes very long, slender, marginate,
tlic third and fourth connected by a basal web ; the first
large, with nine scutella, the second, which is longer than
the fourth, with eighteen, the third tlurty-two, the fourth

AMERICAN BITTERN. 419

twenty-two. The claws arc long, slender, compressed, taper-
ing, slightly arched ; that of the hind toe much larger and
more curved ; the inner edge of the third pectinate, with
about twenty-four teeth.

Tlie plumage is full, soft, loose, and blended ; the feathers
oblong or ovate ; those of tlie head and nape ol)long and
elongated ; of the sides and lower part of the neck also much
elongated, and on the former directed obli([uely backwards,
so as to cover the liind neck, which is bare in its whtde
length ; the scapulars oblong and rounded. The wings are
large, broad, convex, of twenty-six quills, of which the pri-
maries are broad and rounded, except the first, which is
pointed ; the third longest, the second scarcely shorter, and
but slightly exceeding the first ; the secondaries very broad
and rounded, the inner elongated so as to be about the same
length as the outer primaries when the wing is closed. The
tail is very short, nearly even, of ten soft feathers.

The bill is greenish-yellow, with the ridge of the upper
mandible brownish-black toward the end, but paler at the
base ; the bare spaces on the head brownish-yellow ; the
irides reddish yellow ; the feet dull yellowish-green ; the
claws brown. The upper part of the head and occiput are
greyish-brown. A streak of pale buiF passes over the eye to
behind the car q^ dusky band extends from behind the eye ;
the cheek and aii oblique band on the neck are light brownish-
yellow ; a dusky band from the base of the lower mandible
passes under the cheek, and is continued into a black band,
which passes along the side of the neck. The fore part of
the neck is yellowish-white, the throat with a medial longi-
tudinal line of yellowish-brown spots ; on the rest of the neck
each feather has an elongated yellowish-brown medial stripe
edged with darker brown ; the lower parts of the body dull
yellowish- white, each feather with a medial brown streak ;
the abdomen and lower tail-coverts uniform dull buff. The
upper parts are yellowish-brown, variegated with dark brown
and redtlish, the margins of the feathers undulatingly and
transversely barred and dotted. The wing-coverts dull red-
dish-yellow, finely undulated with dusky, the alula, primary
coverts, and quills, deep bluish-grey, with their tip barred

420 BOTAURUS LEXTIGINOSUS.

witli reddish-brown, that colour gradually extending on the
secondary quills. The tail-feathers are greyish-broAvn, un-
dulated with reddish.

Length to end of tail 26 inches, to end of wings 25;
extent of wings 45 ; wing from flexure 12|- ; tail 4^ ; bill
along the ridge 3^, along the edge of lower mandible 4^ ;
tarsus S^; hind toe l^^, its claw l-j^; second toe 2^, its claw
-/V ; third toe 3^, its claw ^ ; fourth toe l|i, its claw -j^.

Female. — The female difiers from the male only in being
somewhat smaller.

Habits. — This Bittern being a native of America, it is to
that continent that they who Avould describe its habits from
personal observation must betake themselves. Not having
iKid an opportunity of studying the bird in the living state,
although I have examined various entire specimens and skins
of it, I must have recoiu'se to the writings of those ornitholo-
gists who are more or less fomiliar with it.

]SLi\ Audubon infonns us that in winter it resides chiefly
to the southward of the United States, the only districts in
whifli he has then met with it being the peninsula of Florida
and its islands, and the lower parts of the valley of the
Mississippi. He says that, although it migrates by night,
and seeks its food then also, it yet occasionally at least feeds
by day. " That they are extremely timid," he continues, " I
well know, for on several occasions, when I have suddenly
come upon them, they have stood still from mere terror, until
I have knocked them down with an oar or a stick. Yet,
when wounded, and their courage is raised, they show great
willingness to defend themselves, and if in the presence of a
dog, they never fail to spread out to their full extent the
feathers of the neck, leaving its hind ])art bare, ruffle those
of their body, extend their wings, and strike violently at their
enemv. When seized tliey scratch furiously, and endeavour
to l)ite, so that, unless great care be taken, they may inflict
severe wounds. I never saw one of them fly farther than
thirty or forty yards at a time ; and on such occasions, their
movements were so sluggish as to give opportunities of easily

AMERICAN BITTERX. 421

shuotiiif^ tlicni ; for tlioy gciu'rally rise williiu a few yards of
you, and fly off very slowly in a direct cours(<. Their cries
at sueli tiuK^s j^reatly resemble those of the Nij^lit and Yellow-
crowned Herons. My friends, l)v. Haclnnan and Mr. Nuttall
have both heard the love-notes of this bird. The former
says, in a letter to nie, ' their hoarse eroakings, as if their
throats were tilled with water, were heard on every side ;'
and the latter states that 'instead of tlie Ininij) or hooiiij) of
the common IJittern, their call is sometliin<;- like the uncouth
syllables oi' piiiiip-((u-(i(i}t, but uttered in the same low, bel-
lowing tone.' An egg presented by Dr. Brown, of Boston,
measures two inches in length, by one inch and a half, and is
of a broadly oval shape, rather pointed at the smaller end,
and of a uniform dull olivaceous tint."

In summer, it is said to extend as fur northward as the
shores of Hudson's Bay, and, according to Dr. liichardson,
" is a common bird in the marshes and thickets of the inte-
rior of the fur countries up to the fifty-eighth parallel. Its
loud booming, exactly resembling that of the Common
Bittern of Europe, may be heard every summer evening, and
also frequently in the day. When disturbed, it utters a
hollow croaking cry," According to Ilutchins, it nestles in
the swamps, laying four cinereous-green eggs. Its food is
said to consist chiefly of fishes and aquatic reptiles, and its
flesh, when in good condition, is by many considered, excel-
lent.

The first individual of this species met with in England,
Avas described by Montagu, Avho states that it " Avas shot by
Mr. Cunnigham, in the parish of Piddletown in Dorsetshire,
in the autumn of 1804." Tliis gentleman relates, that when
in pursuit of some pheasants, amongst the high banks,
between the broad ditches of some rich water-meadows, about
half a mile distant from the river Froome, this bird rose, and
he shot it. Mr. Cunningham further remarks, that its flight
was rather rapid, and that it made a noise something like the
tap on a drum, which induced him to believe it was the com-
mon Bittern, and as such he sent it to Colonel George, of
Penryn, in Cornwall, who at that time Avas makint; a col-
lection of birds." It Avas afterAvards purchased by Montagu,

422 BOTAURUS LENTIGIXOSUS.

and, -^vith the rest of his collection, is now in the British
Museum.

Dr. Edward Moore, in his Catalogue of the Wading Birds
of Devonshire, in the Magazine of Natural History, vol. x.,
p. 320, says he obtained a specimen, shot at Mottrecombe,
near Plymouth, on the 22nd December, 1829. Two or three
other instances are recorded by Mr. Yarrel. In the Zoologist
for February, 184G, Mr. James Cooper, of Preston, gives an
account of one that had been killed about the 8th of Decem-
ber, 1845, in the vicinity of Fleetwood, Lancashire. About
the middle of October, 1844, one was killed on the estate of
Sir William Jardine, in Dumfriesshire. I have not heard of
any other instance of the occurrence of this species in Scot-
land. Mr. Thompson, in the Annals of Natural History,
vol. xvii., published in 1846, records its having been once
shot in Ireland, by Mr. Wm. R. Bobinson, on the 12th of
November, 1845, in a bog, a mile from Armagh. It does
not appear that it has ever been met with on the Continent
of Europe.

YouxG. — When fully fledged, the young have the bill
greenish-yelloAv, with the ridge of the upper mandible brown,
darker toward the end ; tlie bare spaces on the head brownish-
yellow ; the feet greenish-brown, the claws light bro^^^l.
The upper part of the head is reddish-brown, with blackish
streaks ; there are the same markings on the sides of the
head and neck as in the adult, but the black band is faint ;
the fore neck is yellowish-white in its whole length, with
longitudinal series of reddish-broAvn streaks, mottled and
margined with darker ; the sides of the neck greyish-yellow,
with brown streaks. The other parts nearly as in the adult,
but of duller tints, the sides and tibiae more freckled.

Remarks. — Wagler states that the tail feathers are
twelve, but in all the specimens examined by me they are
ten. Individuals vary greatly in size, but little in colour.

423

BOTAURUS MINUTUS. THE LITTLE BITTERN

BOONK. LONG-NECK.

Fig. 35.

Ardea minuta. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 240.

Ardea minuta. Lath. Ind. Ornith. IL 683.

Little Bittern. Mont. Om. Diet, and Supplt.

Heron Blongios. Ardea minuta. Temm. !Man. d' Ornith. IL 584,

Little Bittern. Botauriis minutus. Selb. Illustr. II. 36.

Ardea minuta. Little Heron. Jen. Brit. Vert. Anim. 189.

Ardeola minuta. Bonap. Comp. List, 48.

Letigth about fourteen inches ; tibia entirely feathered.
Male with the upper part of the head, the back, scapulars,
and fail glossij greenish-black ; the sides of the head, the
neck, lower jjarts, and smaller u'ing-coveiis light reddish-
yellow. Female similar, but with the tints less deep. Young
with the upper p)art of the head dark broicn ; the feathers of
the back dark brown, edged with yelloio ; the fore-neck yel-
lowish-white, streaked with dusky ; the sides of the head,
hind part of the neck, wing -coverts, and breast broicnish-red,
streaked loith dusky and brown.

424 BOTAURUS MIXUTUS.

Male. — This Bittern, -which is the smallest European
bird of the family of Ardeina?, is most closely allied to a still
smaller American species, Ardea exilis of Wilson, Ardcola
exilis of the Prince of Canino, from which, considering their
form and colours, it is difficult to distinguish it. Viewed as
a British bird, however, it runs no risk of being mistaken.
Its body is extremely compressed ; the neck long ; the head
oblong and very narrow.

The bill is about a third longer than the head, slender,
but strong, straight, compressed, and tapering to a tine
])oint ; its upper outline dechnate toward the end, the lower
straight and ascending, the edges serrulate, the tips slender
and acuminate ; the gape-line almost straight. The tongue
is an inch and two-twelfths in length, trigonal, fleshy,
grooved near the base, convex toward the end, deeply sagit-
tate at the base, with a long acute papilla on each side, the
tip acute. The oesophagus is eight inches long and very
wide; the stomach roundish, of moderate size, with their
parietes.

The nostrils are linear ; the eyes of moderate size. The
legs rather long ; the tibia feathered almost to the joint ; the
tarsus Avith anterior scutella ; the toes long, slender ; the
first with eight, the second eighteen, the third twenty-eight,
the fourth twenty-two scutella ; the inner toe considerably
longer than the outer. The claws are rather long, very
slender, compressed, little arched, finely pointed, the inner
thin edge of the middle toe serrate, with about thirty teeth.

The eyelids and loral spaces are bare. The hind-neck is
destitute of feathers, or even doAvn, of which there is none
on any part of the body, excepting two small stripes on the
fore part of tlie breast, and a patch on each side of the
rump. The ])lumage is soft and blended ; the feathers on
the upper part of the head elongated ; those on the fore-
neck of moderate length, but on the sides large and curved
backwards, so as to cover the extended bare space behind ;
and on the lower parts elongated. The wings are rather
large, of twenty-six quills ; the second longest, but scarcely
exceeding the first ; the inner secondaries much shorter than
the longest primaries when the wing is closed. The tail is

LITTLE BITTERN. i2o

very short, rounded, of ten dccurved feathers, which are not
stroii<i;er than the scapuhirs.

The hill is yellow, with the exception of the rid^c; and
jjoint of the upper mandihle, which are dusky. The iris
hright y(dlow. The feet dull <^reenish-yellow ; the claws
lij^ht brown. The upper part of the head, the hack, scapu-
lars, and tail are flossy <rreenish-black ; the sides of the
head and neck yellowish-brown ; the rest of the neck of a
light ochraceous tint ; the lower parts white ; the sides
ochraceous ; the anterior feathers of the breast brownish-
black, with yellowish margins ; the lower wing-coverts
white. The smaller upper wing-coverts are ochraceous,
those next the body dark reddish-brown ; the primary coverts
black; the secondary coverts greyish-white ; the (piills black,
glossed with green, and toward the end tinged with greyish-
brown.

Length to end of tail 14^ inches ; extent of wings 22 ;
wing from flexure 6-\ ; tail 2 ; bill along the ridge 2, along
the edge of lower mandible 2-j^ ; bare part of tibia -^ ;
tarsus 1-|4 ; hind toe -^■^, its claw^ -^ ; second toe 1^, its
claw -f^; third toe l-j^, its claw -^; fourth toe l-p'^, its

claw -^

Female. — The female resembles the male, but has the
tints less intense, and is of somewhat smaller size.

Habits. — The Little Bittern, which is extensively dis-
tributed, ha^'ing been found at the Cape of Good Hope, in
Barbary, the south-western parts of Asia, the southern
countries of Europe, and various districts of that continent,
extending as far north as Sweden, is rather of accidental or
occasional than of regular occurrence in Britain, where it
has not hitherto been observed to breed, although nuniy in-
dividuals have been found there in summer, as well as at
other seasons. Dr. Fleming makes mention of one that was
shot at Sanda, in Orkney ; but I am not aware of its having
been obtained on any part of the mainland of Scotland,
although a few individuals are said to have been killed
in Northumberland, Yorkshire, and Cumberland. Li the

426 BOTAURUS MIXUTUS.

southern, and especially the south-eastern counties of Eng-
land, it has frequently been procui-ed, yet not so often as to
raise it from the rank of a very rare visitant. In corre-
sponding latitudes on the continent it is a summer bird
only, inhabiting marshy places, the swampy sides of lakes
and rivers, and, in general, situations in which a profuse
vegetation of reeds, sedges, flags, or willows afibrd it con-
cealment, while they harbour its prey, which consists of
small fishes, young frogs, newts, aquatic insects, worms, and
mollusca. Its nest, which is placed upon the ground, is
formed of withered blades of grasses or carices ; and the
eggs, four or five in number, are white, broadly elliptical, an
inch and five-twelfths in length, an inch and a twelfth in
breadth. The male is said to emit a loud barking cry ; but
the habits of this species are very imperfectly known, none
of the continental ornithologists ha^'ing extended their ob-
servations on birds in any degree approaching to that pre-
sented by the labours of those of North America, especially
Wilson and Audubon ; and in Britain opportunities of study-
ing the manners of this bird are wanting. Although its
nest has not been met >A-ith in England, it very probably
sometimes breeds there, as individuals have been shot in the
summer months and early in autumn. INIr. Thompson men-
tions several cases of its occurrence in Ireland.

YoiNG. — In their first winter the young have the bill
pale flesh-colour, with the ridge brown ; the iris pale yellow ;
the feet pale bluish-green ; the claws pale brown. The upper
part of the head is dull brownish-black ; the feathers of the
upper parts of the body and the scapulars dusky, edged with
light brownish-yellow ; the wing-coverts dull yellow ; the
quills and primary coverts greyish-black, with a tinge of
green ; the outer web of the first quill reddish-brown ; the
tail dusky. The lower parts are pale yellow, streaked with
dusky ; the breast brownish. The following are the dimen-
sions of the individual described, which was procured in a
recent state : —

liCngtli to end of tail 14 inches ; extent of wings 21 ; bill
along the ridge 1^^, along the edge of lower mandible 2^ ;

LITTLE BITTERN. 427

wing from flexure 5^; tail l^ ; tarsus l-^ ; first toe -p^, its
claw -^ : second toe 1-^, its claw -^ ; third toe l-j*^, its
claw -^, Avith 14 teeth ; fourth toe l-^, its claw -j^.

Progress toward Maturity.^ — At the second moult,
according to M. Tcmminck, the longitudinal spots hegin to
disappear ; the feathers on the back are then margined with
light red, and the quill and tail-feathers become black.

428

BOTAURUS CO]MATUS. SQUACCO BITTERN.

Ardea comata. Pallas. Ecis. II. 715.

^Vrdea comata. Squacco Heron. Perm. Brit. Zool. II. 26.

Ardea comata, Squaiota, and castanca. Lath. Ind. Oruith. 686, 687.

Heron crabier. -Vrdea Ealloides. Temm. Man. d'Omith. II. 581.

-Vrdea Ealloides. Flem. Brit. Auim. 96.

Squacco Heron. Ardea Ealloides. Selby, Illustr. Brit. Ornith. II. 25.

Ardea Ealloides. Squacco Heron. Jen. Brit. Vert. Anim. 189.

Buphus Ealloides. Bonap. Comp. List, 48.

Bill slender, blue at the base, cluslaj totcard tlic end ; feet
(jreenish-yelloic ; tipper part of the head pale yellow, icith
dusJcy lines; on the occiput eight or ten white feathers , having
a black line along their margins ; upper parts pale reddish-
brown; icings, rump, and tail white; as are the lower parts,
which, howeter, are more or less tinged with buff.

Adult. — This beautiful species, remarkable fi)r its long
occipital plume of ■white feathers, each with two sub-mar-
ginal black lines, is of the usual form and proportions of the
Egrets, but with the legs less elongated. The bill is about
a fourtli longer than tlie head, slender, tapering, straight,
compressed ; the upper mandible with the dorsal line straight
until toward the end, the sides convex, the groove extending
to a fiftli from the end, the edges sharp, the tip acute ; the
lower mandible with the angle very long and extremely
narrow, the dorsal line very slightly ascending, the sides
concave, the edges sliarp, tlie tip acuminate ; gape-line
commencing behind the eye.

Nostrils linear in the lower and fore part of tlie nasal
membrane. Eyes large. Aperture of ear rather small,
rounded.

SQUACCO BITTERN. 429

Feet lonjT, rather slender. Tibia feathered to the joint.
Tarsus of moderate length, reticulated with hexagonal
scales. Toes rather long, slender, scutellate above, flat
beneath ; first toe large, second a little shorter than the
first. Claws rather long, arched, compressed, acute ; that of
the middle toe serrate on its inner thin edge.

Plumage full, soft, blended ; occipital feathers elongated,
linear, forming a decumbent })lume or crest ; those; of the
fore part and sides of the neck long, with the filaments dis-
united toward tlie end ; dorsal feathers much elongated,
with disunited filaments ; wings and tail rounded.

The bill is greenish-blue, becoming dusky toward the
end ; the loral spaces green ; the legs yellowish-brown ; the
toes umber-brown ; the claws black. The u])per part of the
head is pale yellowish-brown streaked with darker, the
feathers gradually elongated behind, those of the occii)ut pale
yellow or white on the margins, with a submarginal black
line ; the sides and fore j)art of the neck buff"-yellow ; the
back is anteriorly yellowish-brown ; the elongated plumes
pale reddish-yellow. The wings are Avhite, the tips of the
inner secondaries and some of the coverts tinged with
brownish-yellow ; the hind part of the back and the tail are
white ; the throat, lower parts of the body, and under surface
of the W'ings are also white.

Length to end of tail 18 inches ; wing from flexure 9 ;
bill along the ridge 2^.

Female. — The female is similar to the male.

Habits. — This species, which is said to inhabit the sides
of rivers and lakes, marshes, and maritime pastures, but of
the habits of which little seems to be known, is extensively
distributed in Western Asia, and the countries about the
Caspian and the Mediterranean seas. Its migrations, how-
ever, do not extend northward beyond the Baltic. It is
said by Temminck to feed on small fishes, insects, and tes-
taceous mollusca, and to nestle on trees.

Several specimens have been obtained in the southern
and south-eastern counties of England. Scotland has not

430 BOTAURUS COMATUS.

been honoured with a visit, and even in the Green Isle only
one has been met with.

Young. — According to M. Temminck, " the young, be-
fore the age of two years, are without the long occipital
feathers ; the whole of the head, the neck, and the wing-
coverts are brownish-red, Avith large longitudinal spots of a
deeper tint ; throat, rump, and tail pure white ; feathers of
the wings white on the inner webs, but grey externally and
toward the end ; upper part of the back and scapulars of a
more or less deep brown ; upper mandible broAvn and
greenish, lower greenish-yellow; bare skin about the eyes
green; feet greenish-giey ; iris very pale yellow."

431

NYCTICORAX. NIGHT-HERON.

The Night-Herons, of which Aidea Nycticorax, Ardea
caledoiiica, and Ardea violacea of authors may be considered
as auion«^' the most eluiracteristic species, are of a more
robust form than the Herons, or other genera of this family,
with tlie feet shorter, the neck thicker and less elongated,
and the bill stouter and shorter than in most of them.
Some of the species, however, indicate a transition to the
Herons and Bitterns.

Bill scarcely longer than the head, stout, nearly straight,
compressed, tapering to a point ; upper mandible with the
dorsal line straight and declinate for two-thirds, then slightly
dccurved, the ridge flattened or convex for a short space,
then narrowed, the nasal depression elongated-triangular,
with a groove extending to near the end, the sides convex,
the edges sharp, with a notch close to the tip, which is
acute ; lower mandible with the angle very long and very
narrow, the dorsal line direct or slightly ascending, the sides
concave and sloping outwards, the edges sharp and scutel-
late, the tip acuminate ; gape-line slightly arched, com-
mencing behind the eye.

Mouth rather wide and expansile ; upper mandible con-
siderably concave, with three longitudinal ridges, the lower
deeply concave. Tongue of moderate length, emarginate at
the base, trigonal, flat above, tapering to a point. (Esophagus
very wide in its whole length ; proventriculus dilated.
Stomach roundish, compressed, thin, with a small roundish
pyloric lobe. Intestine long and very slender ; rectum with
an oblong coecum ; cloaca globular.

Nostrils linear in the lower and fore part of the nasal
membrane. Eyes large. Aperture of ear rather small,
roundish.

432 NYCTICORAX. NIGHT-HERON,

Feet long, moderately stout. Tibia bare for about a
fourth of its length, and reticulated. Tarsus of moderate
length, covered anteriorly above with scutella or large scales,
below with hexagonal scales. Toes rather long, rather
slender, scutellate above, flat beneath ; first toe stout, second
a little shorter than the first. Claws small or of moderate
size, arched, compressed, narrowed beneath, acute, that of
the middle toe serrate on its inner thin edge.

Plumage full, soft, blended. Feathers on the upper part
of the head and nape elongated, oblong ; some of those on
the occiput very long, linear, forming a pendent, erectile
crest ; on the neck, especially its hind part, rather long, and
inclined obliquely backAvards ; those of its lower part in
fi-ont elongated and rounded ; on the back ovato-oblong ;
those on its fore part elongated, the rest small and somewhat
downy ; on the lower parts long and rather loose. Wings
broad, of about twenty-six quills ; the second and third
longest, the first a little shorter. Tail short, even, of twelve
broad, rounded feathers.

Species of this genus occur on both continents. They
are more active than the Herons, and less graceful in their
motions than the Egi'ets. Their food is the same as that of
those genera. They nestle on the gi'ound, or on trees or
bushes, laying three or four broadly elliptical pale blue eggs.

Only one species is found in Britain, where it is of very
rare occurrence.

433

NYCTICORAX GARDENI. THE GREY NIGHT
HERON.

NIGUT HERON. MGIIT lUVE.N.

Fig. 3G.

Ardca Nycticorax. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 235. Adult.

Ardea grisca. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 239. Immature.

Ardea Nycticorax. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 678. Adult.

Ardea obscura, badia, and Gardeni. Lath. Young.

Bihoreau a mantcau noir. Ardea Nycticorax. Temm. Man. d'Orn. II. 577.

Night Heron, and Gardenian Heron. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Ardea Nycticorax. Night Heron. Flem. Brit. Vert. Anim. 96.

Common Night Heron. Nycticorax Europoeus. Selb. Illustr. II. 39.

Ardea Nycticorax. Common Night Heron. Jen. Lrit. Vert. An. 191.

Nycticorax Gardeni. Bonap. Comp. List. 48.

Adult icith three tchite, hlack-tipped, linear occipital
feathers ; the croicn and nape, icith the fo7'e part of the hack
and the scapulars greenish-hlack ; the wi?i(/s and tail bluish-
(jrey ; the lower parts tchite. Young without elongated occi-
pital plumes ; upper part of the head and nape, with the fore
part of the back and the scapulars dull brown, with pale red
longitudinal streaks ; wing coverts greyish-brown, with yel-
lowish-white spots ; throat and loicer j^cfts ichitish, tinged
icith grey and streaked with brown.

E E

4.34 NYCTICORAX GARDEXI.

Male. — The Night Heron, which is pretty generally dis-
persed over Europe, occurs so seldom in Britain, that I have
not had an opportunity of examining a recent specimen, or of
seeing one alive. The fulluwing description is therefore
taken from a very beautiful individual preserved in the
Musemn of the University of Edinburgh. It was shot in
1823, near Coldstream, by the Earl of Home. The general
form is that of the common Heron, but Avith the neck and
legs shorter. The head is large, ovate-oblong, compressed.

The bill is of equal length with the head, robust, a
little higher than broad at the base, much compressed toward
the end, tapering to a point ; the upper mandible with the
dorsal line straight for two-thirds, then deflected, the ridge
l)roadly convex at the base, but presently narrowed, the nasal
groove strongly marked, the sides convex, the edges sharp,
with a notch close to the acute tip ; lower mandible M'ith the
angle very narrow, the sides concave, toward the end some-
what convex, the edges sharp, the tip acuminate ; the gape-
line a little arched. Upper mandible considerably concave,
with three parallel slender ridges.

The nostrils are straight and linear ; the eyes large, sur-
rounded by a bare space, which extends to the bill. The
tibia is covered to three-qiuirters of an inch from the joint ;
the tarsus ratlier short, Avith broad hexagonal scales before,
and smaller scales of the same form on the sides. The toes
are rather long, slender ; the first with twelve, the second
sixteen, the third thirty-four, the fourth thirty scutella ; the
fourth a little longer than the second, and connected with
tlie third by a pretty large basal web. The claws are of
moderate length, arched, slender, much compressed, acute ;
that of the middle toe pectinate.

The plumage is full, very soft, and rather blended. The
feathers on the u])per ])art of the head, occiput, and hind-
nt'ck are elongated, pointed, and silky. Three feathers,
about seven inches loni;-, linear, acuminate, Avith inflected
webs, arise from the occiput, forming a decurved erectile crest,
extending narrow nearly half-way down the neck. On the
neck the feathers are curved oblicpiely, and elongate towards
its hind and lower parts. The wings are large ; the third

GIIEY NIGHT HERON. 43J

quill longest, the second almost e([ual, the first nearly as
long as the fourth. "NVhen fokU'd the Avings reach to nearly
au inch from the tip of the tail, -vvhich is very short, slightly
rounded, of twelve arched, weak, rounded feathers.

The hill is hlack, toward the base of the lower mandible
yellowish-brown. The bare spaces on the head are yellowish-
green. The iris, according to authors, is orange-yellow.
The feet greenish-yellow ; the claws black. The elongated
glossy feathers on the upper part of the head and the nape
are greenish-black, or rather of a very deep green ; the three
linear feathers white, with the tip black. A white band
extends Irom the forehead over the eyes. The sides of the
neck are very pale purplish-grey ; the throat, fore-neck, and
the lower parts of the body white, with a tinge of purplish.
The fore part and middle of the back, with the scapulars,
are deep green, like the head, appearing black at a distance.
The back of the neck, hind part of the back, tail-coverts,
and tail are pale purplish-blue ; the wings similar, with a
tinge of brown, the outer edge of the first quill whitish.

Length to end of tail 21 inches ; bill along the ridge 2|4,
along the edge of lower mandible 3|^ ; wing from flexure
12 ; tail 5 ; bare part of tibia ^V; tarsus 2-^; hind toe 1^,
its claw yV j second toe 1^, its claw -f-j ; third toe 2^, its
claw -j-V ; fourth toe 1-14? its claw -y'^.

Female. — The female is similar, but with the elongated
nuchal feathers shorter, and the tints somewhat duller.

Habits. — All the species of this family feed occasionally,
if not habitually, by night ; and although the present has
been distinguished in this respect from the rest, it is no
more a nocturnal prowler than the Bittern, or even the
common Heron. It frequents the margins of lakes, pools,
or rivers, preferring those which are plentifully furnished
with reeds, sedges, and other aquatic plants, among which it
may search for its food in comparative security. liike the
other birds of the group to which it belongs, it feeds on
fishes, reptiles, raollusca, and worms. The nest is placed on
the ground, and the eggs, three or four in number, are of

436 NYCTICORAX GARDENI.

the usual pale grecuisli-blue colour. It occurs so seldom in
this countn', that opportunities of observing its habits are
not to be expected by the ornithologist ; and thus I have
nothing to add to the above particulars, derived from other
sources of Luformation than those to which I usually have
recourse. A few specimens have been obtained in Scotland,
and in England it is not much more numerous. Mr. Thomp-
son records two instances of its having been obtained in
Ireland. It is rare even in Holland, but becomes of more
frequent occurrence as we advance southward. Its distri-
bution is very extensive, it being common in many parts of
India and its islands. I have compared with ours the
American bird said by some to be of the same species, but
by others to be distinct, and could observe no appreciable
differences ; but not having specimens at hand, I am unable
to speak Avith certainty on the subject.

Young. — The young bird, when its plumage is com-
jileted, differs so much from the adult, that the older Avriters
considered it as a distinct species. The bill is yellowish-
green, with the ridge and tip of the upper mandible and the
terminal portion of the lower black ; the loral space yellowish-
green ; the iris brown ; the feet dull greenish-yellow. The
feathers are shorter and of looser texture, and the long
occipital plimies have not appeared. The upper parts are
greyish-brown, all the feathers, excepting those on the hind
part of the back, having an oblong or triangiilar medial and
tenninal spot of pale yellowish-red ; the Avings and tail
])luish-grey, with a tinge of brown ; the wing-coverts and
secondary quills with a Avhite triangular spot at the end.
The throat and the lower parts are white, tinged with
greyish-brown, and longitudinally streaked with dusky. In
this state it is the Gardenian Heron of authors.

riiooREss TOWARD Mattkity. — After the second moult
the bill is darker, the iris lighter; the streaks on the neck
less numerous ; the lower parts more white, with the sides
])i'arl-grey ; the upper parts of a greyer tint, with the spots
on the wings smaller ; the liead tinged with brown, and the

GREY NIGHT HERON. 437

fore part of the back and scapulars M'itli green. At the third
moult the colours are nearly perfected. The long fi-athers
on the nape fall off in autunni, and are renewed in spring.

Rkmarks. — On the principle of retaining the Limucau
specific names, a difierent generic name ought to be given to
this group ; but as I find it extremely difficult to render the
nomenclatvire in this family at all rational, I must be content
Avith that given by Mr. Stephens, ami generally adopted.
Mr. Swainson, who is not willing to allow any but himself
or a ([uinarian to alter names, proposes to substitute Nycti-
ardea for Nycticorax, that is, Night Heron for Night Crow.
The new word ought to be Nycterodius.

438

ARDEA. HERON.

The Herons, properly so called, are among the larger
and more robust species of tlie family to wliicli they give
name. Their body is moderately large, but much com-
pressed ; the neck very long and of considerable thickness ;
the head oblong and much compressed.

]>ill longer than the head, stout, straight, compressed,
tapering to a point ; upper mandible ■with the dorsal line
almost straight, the ridge broad and convex at the base,
gradually narrowed to the point, the nasal depression narroAv-
oblong, Avitli a groove extending from it to near the end, the
sides convex, the edges sharp, serrulate, with a notch close
to the tip, which is very acute ; lower mandible Avith the
angle very long and extremely narrowed, the dorsal line
ascending and slightly convex, the sides concave and sloping
outwards ; the edges direct, sharp, serrulate ; the tip acumi-
nate ; gape-line straight, commencing under the eye.

^louth rather narrow, but extensile ; the upper mandible
slightly concave, with three longitudinal ridges, the lower
deeply concave. Tongue emarginate and papillate at the
base, long, slender, trigonal, tapering to a point. (Esophagus
very wide in its whole length ; proventriculus dilated.
Stomach a hemispherical sac, with a round pyloric lobe.
Intestine very long and extremely slender ; no coeca, but an
oblong sac at the commencement of the rectum ; cloaca large
and globular.

Nostrils linear in the lower and fore part of the nasal
membrane. Eyes of moderate size. Aperture of car small,
roundish.

Feet very long, ratlier slender. Tibia bare for more than
a third of its lengtli, covered with hexagonal scales. Tarsus
very long, covered with hexagonal scales, anteriorly with

ARDEA. HERON. 439

scutella, posteriorly Avitli an inner row of sciitolla. 'J'ocs
very lonj;, rather slender, scutellate above, flattcMied beneath ;
the first lar<^e, the steond a little shorter than the fonrth,
which is connected with tlie tliird by a basal web. Claws
moderate^ arched, compressed, narrowed beneath, acute ;
that of the middle toe with a serrate inn<'r edge.

Plumage soft and full. Feathers on the head elongated
and pointed, generally forming a decurved crest ; on the
neck moderate, inclined backwards, on its fore part below
elongated and tapering ; on the fore part of the back much
elongated, "vvith close barbs, which are separated toward the
end. AVings ample ; the outer four (juills nearly ecpial. Tail
short, nearly even, of twelve feathers.

Species of this genus occur on both continents, Ardea
Herodias of America and Ardea cinerea of Europe being
among the most characteristic species. They feed on fishes,
frogs, insects, sometimes small mammalia, and young birds ;
nestle on trees or bushes, sometimes on the ground, laying
three or four broadly elliptical light blue eggs ; have a
sedate, heavy flight ; and are generally shy and suspicious.
The Night-Herons on the one hand, and the Egrets on the
other, are intimately connected Avith this genus, of which
the limits are, in fact, incapable of being strictly determined.

Two species occur in Britain — one resident and generally
dispersed, the other an accidental visitant.

440

ARDEA CINEREA. THE GREY HERON.

HERON. HERONSHAW. COMMON UERON. CRESTED HERON. CORA-GHRIACH-

Fio. 37.

Ardea major. I.inn. Syst. Nat. I. 236. Adult.
Ardca cineroa. T.inn. Sy.=;t. Nat. I. 236. Younjr.
Ardea cincrca. Lath. Ind. Orn. IT. 691.
Heron ccndre. Ardea cineroa. Temm. ^lan. d'Orn. II. .5(17.
Ardca cinerea. Common Ilcron. Flcm. Brit. Anim. 9o.
Common Heron. Ardca cinerea. Sclb. Illustr. II. 11.
Ardea cinerea. Common Heron. Jen. Brit. Vert. Anim. 1 S6.
Ardea cineroa. Bonap. Comp. List, 47.

Adult with the forehead white,- a hiaek pendent oeeipitol
crest; the fore-neck white, with longitudinal black spots; the
upper parts and sides bluish-grey ; the breast black, with a
lohite patch in front ; the abdomen and lower tail-coverts
white; the tarsus much longer than the middle toe and clair.
Young with the upper part of the head dusky grei/ ; the occi-
pital crest short; the tipper parts and sides bluish-grey; the
lower white; the fore-neck white, with dark spots.

GREY HERON. 441

Male. — The Common or Cinereous Heron, which in
many respects is one of the most intercstin*^ of our native
hirds, is at least as wortliy as most of a minute description,
although there is little risk of its being mistaken by the
student for any otlier bird. Its body is rather large, but
nmch compressed, so as to be very light ; the neck very long
and of considerable thickness ; the head rather large, oblong,
and much compressed.

The bill is about half as long again as the head, stout,
straight, compressed, tapering, and pointed ; the upper man-
dible witli the dorsal line almost quite straiglit, being but
slightly declinate toward the end, the ridge broadly conv(!X
at the base, but gradually narrowed ; the nasal space oblong
and filled by a membrane, witli a narrow groove extending
to near the end, the edges sharp and irregularly serrulate,
the tip acute ; the lower mandible w ith the angle very long
and extremely narrow, the dorsal line ascending and con-
siderably convex, the sides concave and ascending, the edges
direct and serrulate, the tip acuminate. The roof of the
mouth is slightt)' concave, with three prominent longitudinal
ridges. The posterior aperture of the narcs wide, margined
with small papillee. The aperture of the glottis without
papilhv on its edges. The tongue is sagittate and slightly
papillate at the base, long, narrow', trigonal, fleshy, flat
above, pointed, with the tip horny ; its length three inches
and two-twelfths. The mouth is rather narrow, but dilatable
from the flexibility and elasticity of the crura of the loAver
jaw. The oesophagus, which is twenty-two inches long, is
very wide, being, when inflated, two inches in diameter at
the upper part, and in the rest of its extent an inch and a
half. The proventricular portion is still wide, and with the
stomach forms a large sac of an oblong form, three inches and
a quarter in length and two inches in width. The breadtli
of the band of oblong proventricular glandules varies fi-om
an inch to an inch and a half. The Avails of the oesophagus
are very thin ; the muscular coat of the stomach is also thin,
its fibres pale, its tendons small, the posterior one inch, the
anterior half-an-inch in diameter ; the inner coat even, soft,
and smooth. The pylorus is onc-tweKth in Avidth, and pre-

442 ARDEA CIXEREA.

ceded by a scnii-oblong lobe capable of admitting the point
of the finger. The intestine, which is seven feet four inches
in length, varies in diameter from three-twelfths to two-
twrlfths, or the thickness of a goose qnill. The rectum,
Avhich is Avider and eight inches long, has at its commence-
ment a single short wide coecum, six-tAvelfths long, three-
twelfths broad at the base, and terminating in a small
papilla. The cloacal dilatation globular. The lobes of the
liver are very unequal, one being two inches in length, the
other seven-twelfths more ; the gall-bladder oblong, an inch
and three-fourths in length. The two biliary ducts enter
together, close to the pancreatic.

The nostrils are linear, four-aud-a-half-twelfths long.
The eye rather large, the width of its aperture being five-
twelfths. The external ear circular, and three-twelfths in
diameter. The legs are long and rather stout ; the tibia
bare for more than a third, and covered Avith hexagonal
scales ; the tarsus long, considerably compressed, with hexa-
gonal scales, and about twelve scutella ; the toes long,
slender ; the first ])roportionally shorter, Avith tAveh'e scu-
tella ; the second Avith twenty-tAvo, the third thirty-five, the
fourth thirty; the third and fourth connected by a basal
Aveb. The claAvs are rather small, arched, compressed, acute,
but blunted by use ; the edge of the middle cLiav purely
serrate.

The plumage is full, soft, and rather blended. The
feathers on the upper part of the head are elongated, lanceo-
late ; some of tliose on the occiput more than five inches
long, slender, and decurved. On the neck the feathers are
oblong, directed obliquely baclvAvards ; those at its loAver
part Avitli an elongated narroAv tapering point, and forming a
])en(lent tuft. On the loAver ])arts in general they are ovato-
oblong, elongated, soft, and blended. On the fore part of
tlu' back they are rather blended, on its liind part doAvny,
but conci'alrd by nunu'rous elongated, ovate feathers, Avith
tlieir filaments disunited toAvard the end, Avhich proceed
from tlu' fore part of the back in four series. Behind those
of the outer series are elongated scapulars of the ordinary
texture. AVings long and very broad, extending Avhen

GREY HERON. 443

closed to two inches beyond the tail ; the second (luill
lonj^est, the first <and third sli<;htly shorter. Tail sliort,
somewhat rounded, of twelve decurvate weak feathers. The
ventral feathers are soft and tufty ; the crural short and
sonicwliat cojiipact. On the breast is a lar^e space, and
behind the thigh on each side a smaller space, covered with
slender down tufts. On the other parts the down is lax,
and of ordinary texture.

The bill is yellow, witli the ridge of the upper mandible
brown toward the end ; the bare space between the bill and
the eye green. The iris is yellow ; the feet dull gre(>n ; the
tibia yellow ; the claws black. The fore and upper parts of
the head are greyish-white. From the eyes to the occiput
the feathers are black, tinged with bliu? and glossy. The
neck in general is whitish, tinged with reddish-purple,
passing below into purplish-grey. A band of numerous
oblong black spots on a Avhite ground down the fore part of
the neck, and commencing about three inches from the bill.
The upper parts in general are ash grey or bluish-grey : the
acuminations of the scapulars bluish-white. The alular
feathers and quills are deep indigo-black, tinged with ash-
grey, the secondaries becoming ultimately of the latter
colour. The edge of the Avings is white, their lower surface
bluish-grey. From the shoulders a broad band of bluish-
black to the abdomen ; the feathers in the angle or on the
fore part of the breast white, with some black spots ; the
sides ash-grey ; the tibial feathers whitish ; the lower tail-
coverts white. The tail ash-grey, of a darker tint toward
the end.

Length to end of tail 39^ inches ; extent of wings 72 ;
bill along the ridge 4, along the edge of lower mandible 6-jL- ;
wing from flexure 18 ; tail 6| ; bare part of tibia 2| ; tarsus
6-Jj; first toe H, its claw i^ ; second toe 2^, its claw -j^^;
third toe 3^, its claw -j-^-; fourth toe 3, its claw -^.

A very large individual, shot on the coast of Kincardine-
shire, has the bill entirely yellow ; the occipital plume seven
inches long ; the elongated feathers on the fore part of the
neck from six to seven inches. The principal measurements
of this specimen arc as follows : — Length 40 inches ; bill

444 ARDEA CIXEREA.

along the ridge 5, along the edge of lower mandible 6^ ;
wing from flexure 19 j ; tail 7^^ ; bare part of tibia 2j ; tarsus
5^ ; hind toe Ik, its claw -f^; middle toe 3^-^, its claw -j^.

Female. — The female is similar to the male, but some-
what smaller, and with the occipital crest less elongated.

Habits. — The cold blasts of the north sweep along the
ruffled surface of the lake, over whose deep waters frown the
rugged crags of rusty gneiss, having their crevices sprinkled
with tufts of withered herbage, and their summits ci'owned
with stunted birches and alders. The desolate hills around
are partially covered with snow, the pastures are drenched
with the rains, the brown torrents seam the heathy slopes,
and the Httle birds have long ceased to enliven those deserted
thickets with their gentle songs. Margining the waters
extends a long muddy beach, over which are scattered blocks
of stone, partially clothed Avith dusky and olivaceous weeds.
Here and there a Gull floats buoyantly in the shallows ;
some Oyster-catchers repose on a gravel bank, their bills
buried among their plumage : and there, on that low shelf,
is perched a solitary Heron, like a monument of listless
indolence — a bird petrified in its slumber. At another time,
when the tide has retired, you may find it wandering, with
slow and careful tread, among the little pools, and by the
sides of the rocks, in search of small fishes and crabs ; but,
unless you are bent on watching it, you will find more
amusement in observing the lively Tringas and Turnstones,
ever in rapid motion ; for the Heron is a dull and lazy bird,
or at least he seems to be such ; and even if you draw near,
he rises in so Hstlcss a manner, that you think it a hard
task for him to unfold his large wings and heavily beat the
air, until he has fairly raised himself. But now he floats
away, liglitly though with slow flappings, screams his harsh
cry, and hies to some distant place, where he may remain
unmolested by the prying naturalist.

Perhaps you may wonder at finding him in so cold and
desolate a place as this dull sea-creek, on the most northern
coast of Scotland, and that, too, in the very midst of winter ;

GREY HEROX. 445

but the Heron courts not society, and seems to care as little
as any one for the cohl. Were you to betake yourself to the
other extremity of the island, -where the scenery is of a very
(lifierent character, and the inlets swarm with Ducks and
(fulls, there, too, you would find the Heron, unaltered in
manners, slow in his movements, careful and patient, ever
hunj^ry and ever lean, for even when in best condition he
never attains the plumpness that <^ives you tlie idea of a
comfortable existence.

Far away throup,h the f^reen valley winds the silver
Tweed, now rolliii;:^ its Mat(^rs over the white ])ebbles, then
glidin;^ placidly between banks covered with fresh herbage
and gaudy florets of many hues. The hum of the wild bee
draws your eye toward those beautiful tufts of purple trefoil;
the Weet-weet, ever vibrating its body as if delicately
balanced on its slim legs, runs along the sunny beach,
spreads out its pointed wings, and skims over the pool.
There, in the water, nearly up to the knees, is the Heron,
patiently waiting an opportunity of seizing some giddy trout.
Those ducklings that swim so beautifully, and dive with
such marvellous quickness, he seems to eye with hungry
glance ; but their watchful protectress is in the midst of
them. That wary old water-rat is equally safe, as he nibbles
the grass at the mouth of his hole, and at intervals trims
his whiskers Avith his little paws. In short, go where you
will, in summer or in winter, to the shores of the sea or the
far inland lake, the source or the estuary of the hill-born
streams, you may here and there find a solitary Heron.

But this bird, usually so careless of companionship, finds
it meet to join its fellows, to select a mate, and ply its archi-
tectural labours in the midst of a busy crowd. About the
middle of March individuals assemble in certain places, and
soon after resort to their breeding stations, which are not in
the rushy marshes nor on unfrequented islands, as one might
expect, but on tall trees, sometimes in large woods, but more
frequently in places near some old family mansion, where
they are not always sure of protection. The nests, which
are very large, nearly flat, and rudely constructed of sticks,
with a lining of grass, wool, and similar materials, are

446 ARDEA CINEREA.

sometimes crowded together in great numbers, generally
on the highest trees in the place, but in some instances on
such as one might think not well selected for security, or
even on an isolated tree of no great height. The eggs, from
three to five in number, are of a light bluish-green colour,
broadlv elliptical, or having both ends nearly equally roundedj
twu inches and a quarter in length, an inch and nine-twelfths
in breadth. Incubation continues about twenty days ; and
the young, at first sparsely covered Avith tufts of down,
remain about six weeks in the nest.

It is stated by Mr. Yarrell, that " sometimes Herons
build on precipitous rocks near the coast, as at South Stack
Lighthouse, near Holyhead, mentioned by Mr. Eyton, and
at the Great Orme's Head; they are said also to build
occasionally on the ground, among reeds and rushes." Mr.
St. John, in his Field Sports of the Highlands, p. 123,
mentions a heronry on the rocks at the entrance of the Bay
of Cromarty : — " Above our heads, and in every direction,
were Herons' nests ; some built in the clusters of ivy, and
others on the bare shelves of rocks. The young ones were
full-grown (early in June), but still in the nests, standing
upright and looking gravely at us. Though I thought it a
shame to make any of them orphans, I took the opportunity
of killing three fine old male Herons, whose black feathers
I coveted much for my salmon flies." Mr. Thompson, in
his Natural History of Ireland, vol. ii. p. 146, gives an
account of a heronry ])laced on the ground, in the Island of
Islay: — "On the i5th of January, 1849, I visited this
heronry, which is not more than three miles from Ardimersy
Cottage, where I was staying. It Avas difficult of discovery,
from being amid brushwood and much broken rocky ground
of similar character ; and I might have been long hunting
for the exact site, had not six or seven Herons, by rising
from the heath, guided me to the spot. The locality is at
the seaward top of a bank raised by rock, greensward, and
heath, and rising somewhat precijiitously to the height of
perluips eighty feet above a beautifully secluded little inlet
of the sea. The nests are built on the ground, about the
roots of large plants of heath, and are formed of pieces of

GREY HERON. 417

liirlit stick. Three of them arc ahout two and a half yards
distant from each other. They are all perfectly accessible to
any person walkin;^ over the j^ronnd; but, fortunately, the
birds arc not disturbed when breedin<ji;. The birds are said
to frequent the site on stormy days throui^hout the year,
flying to it when the wind blows stron«;' upon the neij^h-
bourinf^ shore."

After the breedin<^ season the Herons disperse, and are
to be seen along the sea-coast and in the estuaries, as well
as here and there by the rivers and inland ])onds or lakes.
On the east coast of Scotland the estuaries of the Findhorn,
Ythan, South Esk, Tay, and Forth are favourite places of
resort ; but even on the exposed rocky coasts they are here
and there to be met with, and in some places in great
numbers. Thus, about two miles north of Stonehaven, I
have repeatedly seen more than tw enty in a single small bay
at low water. It is to this tract that the following note by
my friend ^Ir. Thomas Jamieson refers : —

" Several Herons frequent this part of the coast, searching
for their food amongst the low weed-covered rocks and pools
of water left by the receding tide. In autumn, when they
appear to be most numerous, I have seen a hundred and
twenty or more together, their numbers being made up
probably in great measure by young birds of the year.
When disturbed from one spot, they betake themselves round
some corner of the rocks to a neighbouring bay, flying
heavily along, generally within gunshot of the water's surface.
During high tide they rest on detached rocks a short distance
from the land, and occasionally on the face of some of the
lieughs (or high sea-banks). When coming from the inland
parts they keep at a considerable height, moving along with
sedate and regular flight till they pass the heughs a short
distance, and then strike slantingly down to the rocks. I
do not think they keep in company on these occasions,
though two or three may be seen at once coming from the
same direction. I have seen them make their descent to the
rocks by an awkward zigzag movement. Though they gene-
rally fly high, yet, when coming from the sea, in the evening
more especially, they will sometimes pass within shot of the

448 ARDEA CIXEREA.

gi'ound, thou<]fh they will likely rise higher as tlicy get from
the coast. Once or twice I have seen them in the fields. I
recollect of one forenoon seeing four of them standing in a
ploughed field, in most grotesque attitudes, reminding one
of a consultation of witches more than anything else. They
appear to feed by night ; hut I do not think they see objects
so "svell in the dusk, for I have seen two or three pass
overhead within shot, whilst I was quite unconcealed. On
another occasion, when I was down amongst the rocks by
moonlight, one alighted close beside me (not a dozen yards
distance, I suppose), and did not seem to be aware of me till
I frightened it off. When looking for food, they stand by
or in the pools of Avater, with partially outstretched neck,
anxiously intent for their prey, stepping slowly about now
and then, and taking a short flight for a few yards to some
more likely spot, or leaving the bay altogether for some
neighbouring one. They form a fine object in the landscape
on their journey to their distant nests, as

" ' With expanded wings they steer their flight
Aloft, incumbent on the dusky air.'

" A few breed in the woods of Fctoresso ; and I have been
told there is a heronry at Inglesmaldie, in tlie south corner of
the parish of Fettercairn, in this county, and in a straight
line, I suppose, about twenty miles from this."

Heronries are numerous in the tract of country forming
the eastern half of the middle division of Scotland. The
most celebrated of them is that on the banks of the
Findhorn.

The Grey Heron frequents the margins of rivers, pools,
and lakes, as well as the shores of inlets of the sea, where it
may often be observed patiently watching for its prey, or
slowly walking among the mud or weeds. It seems to be
j)ossessed of little activity, and in this respect to contrast
with the Curlew and other birds of the Scolopaceous family,
which arc incessantly in motion Avhile looking for food.
Perched on a stone by the water, reposing on one foot, with
its neck retracted, it remains motionless for hours, until a
fish, or frog, or other object attract its attention, or it is
roused by the apprehension of danger. At low water, how-

GREY HERON. 449

ever, it assumes more activity, and wanders among the stones
and in the shallows in quest of small fishes, crabs, and
shrimps. It also feeds by moonlight, and is said to be in
best condition when the moon is full. Although it is seldom
plump, it is remarkable for its voracity and the rapidity of
its digestion. Its food consists of fishes, frogs, newts, Crus-
tacea, insects, occasionally young birds and small mammalia,
which it kills by striking tliem with its bill, and generally
swallows entire. In performing this latter operation it
ssmetimes finds great difficulty — in the case of an eel, for
instance, which often slips from it. This circumstance has
given rise to the popular belief of the eel's repeatedly passing
through the intestine of the Heron, which, however, is a feat
impracticable, the alimentary tube being in a great part of
its length not thicker than the quill of a goose. Mr. Scott
Moncrieff infonned me that a Heron with an eel twisted
round its neck was found dead in the Duke of Buccleuch's
park at Dalkeith Palace, it having been unable to swallow
or cast off its victim.

The Heron is generally shy and vigilant, so as to be
almost inaccessible to the sportsman in open countries.
Unless in the breeding season, it is unsocial, seldom appearing
in company even with those of its own kind ; and if it
occasionally mingles with Curlews or Gulls, keeps them at
a respectful distance. The sound which it utters is a giating
scream, which, at night especially, comes harsh on the ear.
In rising from the ground, it first spreads out its large
wings, flaps them, then retracts its neck, and gTadually
stretches its legs out behind. Its flight is sedate and
buoyant, but seems heavy, on account of its slowness. In
moving to a distance it usually flies high, sailing at inter-
vals with motionless wings, and, on account of its great size,
forms an interesting object in the landscape.

" In the midland counties," Mr. Harley writes to me,
" we have only three heronries, and they are not very
large. At Lord "Warwick's, I believe about eighty pairs
nestle annually, and their young go away after they are
fledged. The other breeding-places are at Cohvick, near to
Nottingham, and at Harringworth, near to Oundle, in

r r

450 ARDEA CINEREA.

Northamptonshire. About 1815, a pair or two used to nestle
in a tall Scotch fir tree, in Mere-Hill Wood, near to Lough-
borough ; but the keeper shot them down. I recollect taking
eggs from thence, and I have seen young birds brought from
the same place.

" Lord Warwick's heronry is not more than a mile from
the town from which he takes his title, and is situated
within the confines of a spacious park, well wooded with oak,
elm, ash, and horse-chestnut. The classic Avon, whose
glassy stream has been sung by the immortal Shakspere,
flows silently along, laving castle and cottage, and bearing
on its bosom the joyous Coot, the flirting Water-hen, the
wary AVild Duck, and the stately Swan. Let us seat our-
selves beneath this wide-spreading beech, and inhale the
breath of summer morn. Yon towers betoken wealth, splen-
dour, and fame. Yet there dwell not in the venerable
mansion of the renowned Warwicks hearts so happy as those
that now surround us, nor are there heard in those turrets
voices so sweet as those that mingle their morning songs in
gratitude to their great Creator, The Cushat cooes lovingly
to his mate, the note of the Green Woodpecker is heard,
and those wandering Nuthatches, Creepers, Tits, and Fly-
catchers, as they flit past us, enliven the scene. Not far off
the Kcstril hangs on tremulous wing, and over head a pair
of Buzzards are describing their ever-varied circles. A lake
of considerable size adorns the park, part of which is open
and exposed, while the rest has its banks overgrown with
shrubs, brambles, and rushes. The Heron appears partial
to the elm, although we find nests on the horizontal boughs
of the cedar, pine, and spruce. On some of the elms are
twelve or fourteen nests, large and unsightly ; some very
loosely put together, but others more firmly compacted.
When the nests are on the elm, they are on those trees
which are lofty and of great magnitude ; but when on the
cedar, Scotch fir, and s])ruce, they are not at a greater height
than twenty-five or thirty feet. Mr. Wallis, head game-
keeper to Lord Warwick, informs me that the Heron some-
times nestles on the ground. He says that in 1839 a pair
built their nest in a thick sedge beside the lake. It was

GREY HERON. 451

large, composed externally of sticks, but lined with rushes
and fine fibrous roots. Five eggs were laid, and in due time
hatched. In passing, a fi'W days afterwards, he discovered
the mangled remains of the parent bird, she having fallen a
prey to some prowling fox ; and found the young ones
huddled together in the bottom of the nest, as cold as any
stone. Of the obstinacy with which this species adheres to
certain localities, we have an illustration before us. Part of
the margin of the lake is abrupt, rocky, and covered with
scrubs and underwood. In one place are a few low firs and
cedars, which were surrounded with a dense thicket. Well,
although the woodman cleared away tlie brushes that sur-
rounded the trees on which some Herons had their nests,
and plashed up nearly to the branches on which they were,
yet the birds nestled on, and reared their yoimg.

" The Heron is very voracious. In 1828, I saw one
opened at Loughborough, which had in its gullet a full-
grown watet-rat. With us it is not niimerous, althoiigh far
from being uncommon. Being very destructive to fish, it
falls a prey to gamekeepers, and is often found among the
trophies which ornament the gable-end of the woodman's
cottage, or the side of the village barn. There, in company
with the pretty Kestril, the Barn Owl, and the Carrion
Crow, its carcase bleaches in the sun and rain."

This species is generally distributed in Britain, and in
winter rather plentifully even in the northern islands of
Scotland, Avhere, however, I never heard of its breeding.
Unless when occupied with the cares of rearing its young, it
seems to shift about from one place to another, and, in par-
ticular circumstances, considerable numbers may be seen
together. It is impossible, I think, to determine whether
individuals visit this country from the continent or on mi-
gi-ations ; but the number and extent of the heronries in
Scotland and England suffice to account for the numerous
Herons seen dispersed over the island in Avinter. It is at
least equally common in Ireland. Mr. Thompson states
that, " owing to the many suitable bays around the coast,
and the prevalence of water in the island, it is particulai'ly
abundant."

452 ARDEA CINEREA.

It is said to visit Norway, Faroe, and Iceland in summer ;
to be found in Sweden, Russia, and Siberia ; to extend from
thence over the whole continent of Europe. The north and
even the south of Africa are visited by it ; and in Asia, the
Caucasus, India, Java, and Japan are included in its range.
It is nowhere found in America.

YouxG. — "When fully fledged, the young bird has the
plumage less compact than the adult. The occipital crest is
short ; the feathers on the fore part of the neck, although
longish, are not acuminate ; and those on the back are of
the ordinary form. The upper mandible is dusky brown,
dull greenish-yellow toward the edges ; the lower mandible
yellow ; the iris yellow ; the feet dusky, tinged with yellow.
There is no white on the forehead, but the whole upper part
of the head is dusky, with a mixture of ash-grey. The
hind-neck is light grey; the back and wing-coverts deep
grey ; the quills and tail as in the adult. The fore part of
the neck is white, with a band of longitudinal black spots,
less numerous than in the adult ; and the lower parts of the
body are white, with some dusky streaks, except the sides,
which are ash-grey.

Progress toward Maturity. — At the first moult the
plumage is as described in the adult.

453

ARDEA PURPUREA. THE PURPLE HERON.

Ardea purpurea. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 236.

Ardea purpurea. Lath. Ind. Ora. IL 697.

Purple Ileron. Mont. Om. Diet.

Heron pourpre. Ardea purpurea. Temm. Man. d'Om. II. 670.

Ardea purpurea. Flem. Brit. Anim. 96.

Crested Purple Heron. Ardea purpurea. Selb. Illustr. II. 15.

Ardea purpurea. Purple Heron. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 186.

Ardea purpurea. Bonap. Comp. List, 47.

Middle toe and claw longer than the tarsus. Adult with
a longitudinal occipital crest of acuminate decurved feathers ;
neck longitudinally handed xoith greenish-black and light red;
plumage of the body greyish-blue, dark green, and light red;
bill yelloxo ; feet yellow, xoith the scutella atid claws dusky.
Young without elongated feathers on the head, back, or fore-
neck; the forehead black; occiput reddish; fore-neck yellow-
ish-ivhite, spotted xcith black; feathers of the back dusky
grey, margined with light red; legs xohitish; bill yellow, with
a great part of the xipper matidible dusky.

Male. — The Purple Heron, which is somewhat less than
the common species, is also of a more slender form, being in
this and in some other respects intermediate between the
Herons and Egi-cts. Its body is of moderate size, com-
pressed ; the neck very long and slender ; the head rather
small, oblong, and much compressed. The bill is very long,
being nearly double the length of the head, stout, com-
pressed, tapering ; the upper mandible with the dorsal line
almost straight, being but slightly declinate toward the end,
the ridge broad at the base, narrowed beyond the nostrils, a
groove from the latter to near the end, the edges sharp,
toward the end irregularly serrulate, the tip pointed ; lower
mandible with the angle very long and extremely narrow.

454 ARDEA PURPUREA.

the dorsal line ascending and slightly convex, the sides con-
cave and ascending, the edges direct, the tip acuminate.
The gape-line straight, commencing below the eye, and a
little dcclinate at first. A large bare space on each side
from the bill to behind the eye.

Nostrils Hnear, ten-twelfths of an inch long. Eyes small.
The legs long and slender ; the tibia feathered for more than
half its length, scutellate before and behind ; tarsus long,
rather stout, a little compressed, with about twenty anterior
scutella, the sides and hind part with large scales ; toes long,
slender ; the first large, with eighteen scutella ; the second a
little shorter than the fourth, with twenty-four ; the third
with forty ; the fourth with thirty-eight, and connected with
the third by a basal web. Claws long, very slender, a little
arched, compressed, acuminate, that of the middle toe with
upwards of thirty teeth.

On the upper part of the head the feathers tapering, and
forming a short occipital crest ; on the neck short, unless at
its lower part, where they are elongated, tapering, with loose
filaments. On the fore part of the back ovate, behind short
and downy. Four tufts of elongated feathers on the back ;
the two middle shorter than the outer; all ovato-oblong, but
with the filaments, although numerous, disunited toward the
end. Behind the lateral tufts are elongated scapulars of
ordinary structure. On the fore part of the breast and along
its middle the feathers are very long, curved, with loose
filaments. On the middle of the breast anteriorly is a large
space covered with short, buff-coloured, down-plumelets ;
and there is a smaller patch of the same nature, on each
side, behind the thigh-joint. The wings are long, broad, of
twenty-six quills, besides the humerals ; the inner secon-
daries as long as the outer primaries when the Aving is
closed ; the second, third, and fourth quills about equal ; the
first a little shorter. The tail is short, even, of twelve
feathers.

The bill is bright yellow, with the ridge brown ; the bare
preocular space yellow ; the bare part of the tibia, the hind
part of the tarsus, and the soles yellow ; tlie rest brown ; the
claws black. The upper part of the head and a line from

PURPLE HERON. 45.5

the occiput to the middle of the neck, a line on each side
from the angle of the mouth to the occiput, and another
from the cheek to the middle of the neck, hluish-hlack. The
throat wliite, a hand of li<^ht red down the fore-neck, with
the medial feathei-s having a longitudinal ])lack line, the
sides of the neck reddish-white, and a band of the same from
the eye to the occiput ; on the hind-neck from the middle a
band of bluish-grey expanding below. The elongated feathers
in front black along the inner web, white on the outer, with
the margin red. Upper parts light greyish-blue ; the middle
of the back darker, Avith a greenish gloss ; the outer elon-
gated plumes light blue, with the extremity light red. The
edge of the wing light red ; the quills externally light blue ;
toward the end and on the inner webs black. The tail blue
at the base, black toward the end. Elongated feathers on
the fore part of the breast of a rich reddish-purple colour ;
those along the middle of the breast greenish-black, tinged
with grey, and Avith red on their outer w^ebs ; a longitudinal
band of dull red on each side of the breast ; the sides light
bluish-grey. The lower suface of the wings light red, ex-
cepting the larger coverts, which are light blue, as is^the
under surface of the quills ; the outer primaries obliquely and
irregularly banded with blue and black toward the end.
Feathers of the tibia? light red ; lower tail-coverts greenish-
black, with some white.

Length to end of tail 36 inches ; bill along the ridge 5^^,
along the edge of lower mandible 6f ; wing from flexure
15^ ; tail 6 ; bare part of tibia 3^ ; tarsus 5^ ; first toe 2, its
claw 1^ ; second toe S-^, its claw 1-jV ; third toe 4^, its
claw l^ ; fourth toe 3-^, its claw \^.

Female. — The female resembles the male.

Habits. — The Purple Heron appears to be very exten-
sively distributed, being found in India, the Philippine Isles,
the borders of the Red Sea, those of the Caspian Sea, the
coasts of Africa, and the south of Europe. It extends north-
ward as far as Holland, where it is not uncommon ; and has
several times been obtained in England, where, however, it

456 ARDEA PURPUREA.

can rank only as an accidental straggler. Its food is said to
consist of frogs, fishes, small quadrupeds, and young birds.
M. Teraminck states that it nestles among reeds or on hushes,
seldom on trees, and lays three eggs. One in my collection
is much inferior in size to those of the common Heron ; of a
broadly elliptical form, having both ends alike, its length
two inches and a twelfth, its greatest breadth an inch and
seven-twelfths, its colour pale greenish-blue.

YouxG. — According to M. Temminck, " the young are
destitute of crest, or have only slightly elongated reddish
feathers in place of it. The elongated feathers at the lower
part of the neck and those on the back are also Avanting.
The forehead is black ; the nape and cheeks pale red ; the
throat white ; the fore part of the neck yellowish-white,
with numerous longitudinal black spots ; the feathers of the
back, scapulars, wings, and tail blackish-grey, bordered with
light red ; the belly and tibiae whitish ; a large portion of
the upper mandible blackish ; the lower, the bare skin
around the eyes, and the iris of a very pale yellow."

Remarks. — The numerous errors into which the older
writers fell with regard to this bird, which some of them
have described in its different stages as forming several dis-
tinct species, it is hardly worth while to point out. My
description of the adult has been taken from a Bengal speci-
men in my collection. The toes of this Heron are propor-
tionally more elongated than those of the other species, and
resemble those of the Bitterns, although in other respects it
agrees with the true or typical Herons.

Specimens of this species have been obtained in the
southern and eastern coasts of England — in Cornwall, Devon-
shire, Norfolk, and Suffolk. In the Magazine of Natural
History, vol. x. p. 116, Mr. Hore states that, " some time in
the month of November, 1835, a Purple-crested Heron was
obtained on the borders of a large piece of water, known by
the name of the King's Fleet, near the mouth of the Wood-
bridge river, in Suffolk. I know of two other instances of
this species of Heron occurring in this county; I have also

PURPLE HERON. 457

known two or three individuals to have been met with in
Norfolk within a few years. One instance only of its occur-
rence in Scotland is mentioned : it is recorded in the
Zoologist for July, 1849, p. 2497, by the Rev. James. Smith,
who, on the 18th of June of that year, on returning a skin
of the Purple Heron wliich I had lent him for comparison,
wrote as follows : — '* I have now ascertained beyond a doubt
that a specimen of the Purple Heron was shot in a small
marsh adjoining a farm-house in this parish (Monquhitter)
some time about the beginning of March, 1847. It came
from the south-east when it alighted. It was a beautiful
specimen, and measured five feet from tip to tip of the
extended wings. As the individual by whom it was shot
had never seen a Heron like it before, he sent it to a neigh-
bouring village to be stuffed. While there it attracted
general attention and admiration, all declaring that no such
bird had come under their notice before. The stuffer having
to be from home for a considerable time before he could get
the process properly completed, he found to his mortification,
on his return, that the specimen had been all but gnawed to
pieces by rats." Enough, however, remained to enable Mr.
Smith to ascertain the species. Mr. Thompson has recorded,
in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1834, and in
the second volume of his Natural History of Ireland, p. 155,
the occurrence of one in Ireland.

458

EGRETTA. EGRET.

The Egrets differ from the Herons chiefly in being of a
more slender form, with the neck and legs extremely elon-
gated, and the latter having a larger portion of the tibia
bare. The bill is also generally longer and more attenuated,
with its dorsal outline a little deflected toward the end.
Many of the species are also furnished with very long dorsal
plumes, of which the filaments are disunited. But all the
species are not equally marked by these characters, some of
them approaching to the Herons on the one hand, and to
the Bitterns on the other. The most characteristic may be
described as follows : —

Bill much longer than the head, strong but rather
slender, straight, compressed, tapering to a point ; upper
mandible with the dorsal line straight until toward the end,
when it is a little deflected, the ridge broad and convex at
the base, gradually narrowed to the point, the nasal depres-
sion narrow-oblong, with a groove extending from it to near
the end, the sides convex, the edges sharp, often serrulate,
Avith a notch close to the tip, which is very acute ; lower
mandible with the angle very long and extremely narrow,
the dorsal line slightly ascending and almost straight, the
sides concave and sloping outwards ; the edges direct, sharp,
often serrulate ; the tip acuminate ; gape-line straight, com-
mencing under the eye.

Mouth ratlier narroAv, but extensile ; the upper mandible
slightly concave, with three longitudinal ridges, the lower
deeply concave. Tongue emarginatc and papillate at the
base, long, slender, trigonal, tapering to a point. Gisoj)hagus
very wide in its whole length ; proventriculus dilated.
Stomach a hemispherical sac, with a round pyloric lobe.
Intestine very long and extremely slender ; no coeca, but an

EGKETTA. EGRET. 4. "59

oblong sac at the commencement of the rectum ; cloaca large
and globular.

Nostrils linear in the loAver part of the nasal membrane.
Eyes rather small. Aperture of ear small, roundish.

Feet extremely long, slender. Tibia bare for half its
length or more, covered with hexagonal scales, tarsus very
long, covered w^ith hexagonal scales, anteriorly with scutella.
Toes long, slender, scutellate above, flattened beneath ; the
first large, the second a little shorter than the fourth, whicli
is connected with the third by a basal web. Claws moderate,
arched, compressed, narrowed beneath, acute ; that of the
middle toe with a serrate inner edge.

Plumage soft and full. Feathers on the head more or
less elongated ; on the neck short, oblong, inclined back-
wards, on its fore part below considerably elongated ; on the
hind part of the back quite downy ; four longitudinal dorsal
series of very elongated feathers, generally having distantly
placed filaments, and often extending boyond the tail.
Wings ample, of about twenty-eight q\iills, besides humerals,
the outer three nearly equal. Tail short, nearly even, of
twelve feathers.

Species of this genus occur on both continents — Egretta
Leuce, candidissima, and Ludoviciana of America, and
Egretta nigrirostris, alba, flavirostris, and Garzetta of the
Old Continent being among the most characteristic. They
feed on fishes, reptiles, Crustacea, insects, small quadrupeds,
young birds, and other animals. They are remarkable for
their graceful movements, and in activity greatly surpass the
Herons. Their flight is sedate, but buoyant. They nestle
generally on trees or bushes, sometimes on the ground,
laying three or four broadly elliptical light blue eggs.
Equally shy and suspicious with the Herons, they are with
great difficulty approached, unless during the breeding
season.

None of the species are resident in Britain, but two or
three have been met with there.

460

EGRETTA NIGRIROSTRIS. THE BLACK-BILLED

EGRET.

Fig. 38.

Egretta nlgrirostris. Bonap. Comp. List, 47. (.>)

Length about three feet and two-thirds ; occipital feathers
very slighly elongated ; dorsal plumes with the shaft stiffish,
straight, and extending a little heyond the tail; plumage
xohite; bill black, with the tip dtdl greenish-grey ; bare pre-
ocular space verdigris green ; feet dingy flesh-coloured, but
the tarsal and digital scutella dusky.

Male. — This species is superior in size to the Common
Heron, -which it greatly exceeds in elegance of form. The
body is of moderate size, much compressed ; the neck very
long and slender ; the head rather small, oblong, and much
compressed. The bill is long, stout, compressed, tapering ;
the upper mandible with the dorsal line straight for two-
thirds from the base, then slightly declinato-convcx, the
ridge broad at the base, narrow but convex in the rest of its
extent ; the nasal depression narrow, elongated, Avith a
groove from its fore part extending nearly to a third from
the tip, the sides convex, the edges direct and sharp ; lower

BLACK-BILLED EGRET. 461

mandible with the angle long and extremely narrow, the
dorsal line slightly ascending, the sides sloping outwards
and concave, the edges sharp, the tip acute. The gape-line
straight, commencing under the centre of the eye, at first
somewhat sinuate, and toward the end slightly deflected. A
large bare space on each side of the head, extending from
the base of the bill to a little behind the eye and angle of
the mouth.

The roof of the mouth is slightly concave, with three
longitudinal sharp ridges ; the palate convex ; the lower
mandible with a groove and ridge on each side, and a central
ridge. Tongue very slender, sagittate at the base, tapering
to the point, which is acute. The mouth is rather narrow,
measuring only scvcn-and-a-half-twelfths across, but, in con-
sequence of the flexibility of the crura of the lower man-
dible, is dilatable to an inch and a half. The oesophagus is
twenty-eight inches long, an inch and a half in width at the
top, about a third down an inch, afterwards an inch and a
half, and at the proventriculus two inches and a quarter.
The proventricular belt is one inch and three quarters in
breadth ; its glandules very numerous, oblong, about a
twelfth and a half in length ; at its upper margin are several
groups of large mucous crypts having wide apertures. Be-
yond the proventriculus the stomach forms a sac two inches
in diameter, its muscular coat very thin, being fonned of
slender muscular fibres converging toward two roundish
tendinous spaces ; its inner coat thin, soft, and smooth.
Appended to the stomach is a pyloric lobe, ten-twelfths in
diameter, internally smooth, its aperture half-an-inch in
width. The intestine is nine feet one inch in length, its
width varying from three to two-twelfths ; the rectum five
inches long, with a coecal appendage at its commencement ;
its globular dilatation an inch and three-fourths in diameter.
The lobes of the liver are very unequal, the right being
three inches and a quarter in length, the left two inches and
a half.

The nostrils are linear, half-an-inch long. The eyes are
rather small, the diameter of their aperture four-twelfths
and a half. The legs are very long and slender ; the tibia

462 EGRETTA NIGRIROSTRIS.

feathered for nearly half its length ; in the rest of its extent
considerably compressed, and covered with large elongated
hexagonal scales ; the tarsus long, compressed, rounded
before and behind, Avith twenty large anterior scutella ; a
posterior series of large scales on the inner, and of two rows
of smaller on the outer side ; on the tarsal joint the scutella
become very narrow, and finally divided. The hind toe is
moderate, with eight scutella ; the second a little shorter
than the fourth, and with twenty-three scutella ; the third
very long, Avith thirty-three scutella ; the fourth with twenty-
seven, and connected with the third by a basal web. The
claws are moderate, arched, compressed ; that of the middle
toe serrate, with thirty teeth.

The feathers on the head and neck are of moderate
length, oblong or sub-ovate, of rather loose texture, excepting
those on a longitudinal band along the fore part of the neck,
which are small and more compact. The occipital feathers
are very slightly elongated, the longest being an inch and a
half in length ; but they scarcely form a crest. On the
lower part of the neck the feathers are considerably elon-
gated. On the loAver parts of the body they are long and of
loose texture, especially on the anterior portion of the breast,
margining and covering a large space, which is bare in the
centre, and on each side has a broad longitudinal band of
singular downy plumules of a buffy colour, about three-
fourths of an inch in length, with a long orange-coloured
shaft, and extremely feeble so as to be easily torn across.
On the sides and lower parts the down is of the ordinary
kind ; but on each side of the abdomen, behind the fem\ir, is
a patch of huffy down. On the fore part of the back the
feathers are large and ovate ; on the hind part perfectly
downy. From the fore part of the back arise four bunches
or series of very elongated feathers, having rather firm,
though slender, straightish shafts, with widely separated,
deflected, barbulate filaments. In each of the two middle
series are twelve, in each of the lateral about eight long
feathers, besides smaller. Posterior to the lateral series, on
each side, are six very long, broad, and roundish scapulars,
which extend beyond the closed wing. The longest plumes

BLACK-BILLED EGRET. 463

extend two inches and a half beyond the tail, and are sixteen
inches in length. The winj^s arc long, broad, and rounded,
of twenty-eight quills, besides eight humerals. The third
quill is longest ; the fourth a twelfth and a half shorter ; the
first five-twelfths shorter than the second, which is five-
twelfths shorter than the third. The tail is short, of twelve
broad, rounded, rather weak feathers ; the lateral only
three-and-a-half-twelfths shorter than the medial.

The bill is black ; the tip of each mandible greenish-
horn-colour to the extent of an inch ; the base and the bare
space on each side of the head verdigi'is green. The inside
of the mandible is black ; the fore part of the palate yellow,
its hind part flesh-coloured. Tongue dusky, at the base
flesh-coloured. Iris light yellow. The bare part of the
tibia and the upper part of the surface are flesh-coloured ;
the scutella of the tarsus and toes dusky brown ; its hind
part and the soles dusky flesh-coloured. The claws are
brownish-black. The plumage is white, with a faint tinge
of yellowish.

Length to end of tail 44^ inches ; extent of wings 66 ;
head and bill 8 ; ridge of upper mandible 4^^ ; gape-line
6-j2j ; height of bill \%, its breadth -j% ; wing from flexure
18^ ; tail 7 ; bare part of tibia 5|- ; tarsus 7-/V ; first toe IfV,
its claw 1-Jj ; second toe 3, its claw -j^ ; third toe 4^, its
claw Y*V ; fourth toe 3^, its claw ^.

The individual above described was undoubtedly adult,
its bones being well ossified, and its plumage perfect. The
testes were highly developed, oblong, unequal, the right one
inch, the left an inch and a quarter in length. It was killed
by Mr. Martin, gamekeeper to the Earl of Haddington, on
Tyningham Sands, on the 9th June, 1840. It had never
been observed before that day, and was approached with
difficulty. It having been sent to Mr. Macduff Carfrae to be
l)repared, I was favoured by him with a minute examination
of it, in its recent state, and afterwards with an inspection of
the body.

Mention has been made by various writers on British
Birds of a "White Heron or Great White Egret, which,
according to report, had been several times seen, but never

464 EGRETTA NIGRIROSTRIS.

obtained. Without showing that these birds were not albino
varieties of the common Heron, most of our Faunists have
admitted them as Ardea alba of Linnaeus and Wagler, Ardea
Candida of Brisson. No individual had examined a large
white Egret obtained in Britain mitil the specimen above
described came into my hands, fortunately in a recent state.

On comparing it ■with a stuffed skin from France, and
with the accurate descriptions of Brisson and Wagler, I find
some differences which seem sufficient to indicate a species
distinct from the bird described by them. In the adult Ardea
alba or Candida, the bill is yellow, or pale brown, or yellowish-
brown, with the ridge blackish, and the bare space at its
base dull green. In the young bird it is described as greenish-
black or blackish-gTeen tinged with yellow. In the indivi-
dual which I have described the bill is of a decided black,
with the tip dusky horn-colour. As to the feet, it is probable
that no reliance can be placed upon the descriptions of
authors, as they have not examined fresh specimens ; and the
other details which they give are applicable to several species
alike. My specimen may, after all, be identical with Ai'dea
alba or Candida, but until that bird is more correctly described,
I prefer considering the individual examined by me, adult as
it certainly is, as the representative of a species, to confound-
ing it with that obscurely indicated by the discordant accounts
of authors.

465

EGRETTA ALBA. THE YELLOW-BILLED WHITE

EGRET.

GUKAT WHITE HERON.

Ardea alba. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 239.

Ardea alba. Lath. Ind. Oruith. IL 695.

Great "WTiite Heron. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Heron Aigrette. Ardea Egretta. Temm. Man. d'Omith. II. 672.

Great White Heron. Ardea alba. Selb. Illustr. Brit. Omith. II. 18.

Ardea alba. Great White Heron. Jen. Brit. Vert. Anim. 187.

Egretta alba. Bonap. Comp. List. 47.

Length nearly three feet and a half ; occipital feathers
very slightly elongated ; dorsal plumes loith the shaft stiffish^
straight, and extending a little beyond the tail ; plumage
white; hill yellow ; bare preocular space verdigris green;
feet black.

Male. — This species, although slightly inferior in size to
the Black-billed Egret, is so very similar to it, that the one
can be distinguished from the other only by the colour of the
bill, and some differences in the length of the tarsi and the
bare part of the tibiae. The bill is long, stout, compressed,
tapering ; the upper mandible with its dorsal line straight
for two-thirds from the base, then slightly dcclinato-convex,
the ridge broad at the base, narrow but convex in the rest of
its extent, the nasal depression narrow, elongated, with a
groove from its fore part extending nearly to a third from the
tip, the sides convex, the edges direct and sharp ; lower
mandible witli the angle long and extremely narrow, the
dorsal line slightly ascending, the sides sloping outwards and
concave, the edges sharp, the tip acute. The gape-line
straight, commencing under the centre of the eye, at first

G Qt

466 EGRETTA ALBA.

somewhat sinuate, and toward the end slightly deflected. A
large bare space on each side of the head extending from the
base of the bill to a little behind the eye and angle of the
mouth.

The nostrils are linear, six and a half twelfths long. The
eyes are rather small. The legs are very long and slender ;
the tibia feathered for nearly half its length ; in the rest of
its extent considerably compressed, and covered with large
elongated hexagonal scales ; the tarsus long, compressed,
rounded before and behind, with fourteen large anterior
scutella ; a posterior series of large scales on the inner, and
of two rows of smaller on the outer side. The hind toe is
moderate "VA-ith nine scutella, the second considerably shorter
than the fourth, and Avith twenty scutella ; the third very
long, with thirty scutella ; the fourth with twenty-eight, and
connected with the third by a basal web. The claws are
moderate, arched, compressed, that of the middle toe serrate,
with about thirty teeth.

The feathers on the head and neck are of moderate length,
oblong, or rather subovate, of rather loose texture, excepting
those on a longitudinal band along the fore part of the neck,
which are small and more compact. The occipital feathers
are very slightly elongated, the longest being an inch and
four twelfths, scarcely forming a crest. On the lower part of
the neck the feathers are considerably elongated. On the
lower part of the body they are long and of loose texture,
especially on the anterior portion of the breast margining
and covering a large space, which is bare in the centre, and
on each side has a broad longitudinal band of singular doANTiy
plumules of a buflFy colour, about three-fourths of an inch in
length, with a long orange-coloured shaft, and extremely
feeble, so as to be easily torn across. On the sides and lower
parts, the down is of the ordinary kind ; but on each side of
the abdomen, behind the femur, is a patch of buffy down.
On the fore part of the back the feathers are large and ovate,
on the hind part perfectly downy. From the forepart of the
back arise four series of very elongated feathers, having
ratlicr firm, though slender, straightish shafts, with widely
separated, deflected, barbulate filaments, the longest extend-

YELLOW-BILLED WHITE EGRET. 467

ing a little beyond the tail, and fourteen inches in lengtli.
The -wings are long, broad, and rounded; tlie first (|uill
three-twelfths of an inch shorter than the second, which
exceeds the third by one-twelfth. The tail is short, even,
of twelve broad, rounded, rather weak feathers.

The bill is yellow, the tip slightly dusky. The bare space
on each side of the head verdigris green. The feet are black.
The phnnage is white, Avith a faint yellowish tinge.

Length to end of tail 40 inches ; head and bill 8 ; ridge
of upper mandible 4^ ; gape-line 5-|-| ; height of bill \\, its
breadth -^ ; wing from flexure 16 ; tail 6|- ; bare part of
tibia 3^ ; tarsus 6-j^ ; first toe l-j^, its claw -LL ; second toe
2-^, its claw -j^ ; third toe 3^, its claw -^ ; fourth toe ^|^,
its claw -j^.

The above description is from a preserved specimen. Com-
pared with Ardea nigruostris, it has the bill a little higher
at the base, the wing shorter, the tail even instead of being
rounded, the legs much shorter, as are the toes ; but other-
wise there is no perceptible difference, excepting the colour
of the bill. The two individuals are adult, with the dorsal
plumes in the same state.

Remarks. — The only detailed description of a White
Heron killed in Britain that has hitherto been given is that
of Egretta nigrirostris presented in this work. I have else-
where remarked, and have now no reason to retract it, that
*' were the description of authors so detailed as those in my
History of British Birds, one might easily refer to its species
any individual bird that he might obtain ; but this is by no
means the case, insomuch that even the most recent works,
namely, those of Mr. Gould and Mr. Yarrell, contain de-
scriptions and figures of the Great White Egret so imperfect
as to be useless for comparison with very nearly allied species.
That bird has the shaft of the dorsal plumes straight ; and
yet they are represented in both works as arcuate or
decm-ved, but in Mr. Gould's with the tip a little recurvate.
The bill in both works is bounded by right lines, which is
not the case in any Egret known to me. The descriptions
are, I regret being obliged to say it, good for nothing."

468 EGRETTA ALBA.

In my Manual of British Birds I named the T}Tiingham
Egret Erodius Victoriae, supposing it to be new, or at least
of the species called Egretta nigi-irostris by Mr. Grey and
the Prince of Canino, but of -which I could not find a
description. This latter name is quite appropriate, however,
and until it be determined what species it really is, I think
it better to adopt it.

Egretta nigrirostris is much larger in all its principal
dimensions than Egretta alba, which exceeds Egi-etta Leuce.
Length 44^ inches ; extent of wings 66. The bill is long,
stout, compressed, tapering, the dorsal line straight for two-
thirds, then slightly declinato-convex, deep black, with the
tips greenish-grey or horn-colour to the extent of an inch,
the base as far as the nostrils verdigris-green, as is also a
large bare space on each side of the head, extending from
the base of the bill to a little behind the eye and angle of
the mouth. The occipital feathers very slightly elongated,
being an inch and a half in length. The dorsal plumes
have rather finn, though slender, straightish shafts, the
longest extending two inches and a half beyond the tail, and
sixteen inches in length. The bare part of the tibia and the
upper part of the tarsus are flesh-coloured ; the scutella of
the tarsi and toes dusky brown ; the hind part of the tarsus
and the soles dusky flesh-colour ; the claws brownish-black.
The plumage white, with a faint tint of yellowish.

Egretta alba, which is about 40 inches in length, has the
bill long, stout, compressed, tapering, the dorsal line straight
for two-thirds from the base, then slightly declinato-convex.
A large bare space on each side of the head, extending from
the base of the bill to a little behind the eye and angle of
the mouth, said by authoi-s to be pale green. Mr. Yarrell
says the bill is " yellow at the base, black towards the
point." Mr. Gould says it is "deep brown, tinged with
yellow about the nostrils." No two authors agree on this
subject. It was in the stuffed specimen above described
yellow, Avith the tip slightly dusky. The occipital feathers
very slightly elongated, the longest being an inch and four-
twelfths in length. The dorsal plumes have rather firm,
though slender, straightish shafts, the longest extending two

YELLOW-BILLED WHITE EGRET. 469

inches beyond the tail, and fourteen inches in length. The
tibia, tarsus, toes, and claws are black. The plumage white,
with a faint yellowish tinge.

Now the only differences in the above descriptions are in
the general size, the colour of the bill, and that of the feet;
but in the measurements of the bill and feet, as will pre-
sently be seen, the difference is great ; and while the one
has twenty tarsal scutella, the other has only fourteen.

Egretta Leuce, an American species, is smaller than
Egietta alba. The bill is long, stout, compressed, tapering,
its dorsal line straight for two-thirds, then slightly declinato-
convex. The bill bright yellow, as is the bare space between
it and the eye. The occipital feathers are slightly elon-
gated. The dorsal plumes have very slender, slightly de-
curved, and slightly undulated shafts, the longest extending
about ten inches beyond the end of the tail. The tibia,
tarsus, toes, and claws black. The plumage white.

Some of the measurements of three individuals of these
three species are here given : —

Nigrirostris. Alba. Leuce.

Length 44 6 . . 40 0 . . 37 0

Extent of wings . . 66 0 . . — . . 55 0

Bill along the ridge 4 9.. 4 7i . . 47

Gape-line 6 2 . . — . . 5 5

Height of bill .... 0 10^ . . 0 lOi . . Oil

AVing from flexure . 18 3 .. 16 0 .. 16 6

Tail 7 0 .. 6 6 .. 6 3

Bare part of tibia ..56.. 38.. 36

Tarsus 7 9 .. 6 5 .. 6 1

Tliird toe 4 6 . . 3 6 . . 3 11

Its claw 0 8 .. 0 7^.. 0 9

It will be seen how greatly Egretta nigrirostris exceeds the
others in the bare space on the tibia, in the tarsus, and in
the middle toe. All the individuals described were adult,
with the dorsal plumes in the same state.

It is clear that Egretta nigi-irostris exceeds Egretta alba
in size, as much as the latter exceeds Egretta Leuce. Its
bill, however, is more slender than that of either, and its

470 EGRETTA ALBA.

tarsi and toes much longer ; ■while the bare part of the tibia
greatly exceeds that of the rest. I have examined the
digestive organs of Egretta nigiirostris and Egretta Leuce,
but not of Egi'ctta alba. Of the first, the oesophagus was
28 inches long, 2^ inches wide at the provcntriculus ; sto-
mach 2 inches in diameter, with a pyloric lobe 10 twelfths
in breadth ; intestine 9 feet 1 inch long, from o to 2 twelfths
in breadth. Of the second, the oesophagus was 26 inches
long, H inch wide at the provcntriculus ; stomach H inch
in diameter,with a pyloric lobe 8 twelfths in breadth ; intes-
tine 6 feet T inches long, its average width 2 twelfths.

471

EGRETTA GARZETTA. LITTLE WHITE EGRET.

Ardea Garzetta. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 937.

Ardea Garzetta. Lath. Ind. Om. II. 694.

Egret. Mont. Om. Diet.

Ardea Garzetta. Flcm. Brit. Anim. 96.

Heron Garzette. Ardea Garzetta. Temm. Man. d'Orn. II. 574.

Ardea Garzetta. Wagler, Syst. Avium.

Little Egret Heron. Ardea Garzetta. Selb. lUustr. II. 21.

Ardea Garzetta. Little Egret Heron. Jen. Brit. Vert. Auim. 187.

Egrctta Garzetta. Bonap. Comp. List. 47.

Leiujth about two feet ; plumage soft atid blended; occi-
pital feathers cofisiderably elo7igatcd; three of them very long,
slender, tapering, comjyact ; those of the lower part of the
neck similarly elongated and tapering ; dorsal plumes with
the shaft very slender, straight, recurved at the end; plumage
white; bill black; bare preocxdar space green; bare part of
tibia and uppei' half of tarsus black; lower part a?id toes
greenish-yellow. Young tvhite, without occipital or dorsal
plumes ; the bill yellow for more than half its length.

Male. — This beautiful Egret, which is inferior in size to
Egretta russata, is of a very slender form, having the body
much compressed, the neck very long and slender, the head
rather small, oblong, and much compressed. The bill is
about double the length of the head, straight, rather slender,
tapering ; the upper mandible with the dorsal line straight
for three-fourths from the base, then slightly decHnate-
convex ; the ridge narrow, unless at the base ; the nasal
depression narroAv, elongated, with a groove from its fore
part extending nearly to a tliird from the tip ; the sides
convex ; the edges inflected and sharp, with a notch close
to the narrow, rather blunt tip ; lower mandible with the
angle long and extremely narrow, the dorsal line straight

472 EGRETTA GARZETTA.

and very slightly ascending, the sides sloping outwards and
a little concave, the edges sharp and inflected, the tip acute.
The gape-line straight, commencing under the hind part of
the eye, at first somewhat sinuate.

The nostrils are linear, four-twelfths of an inch long.
The eyes of moderate size. The feet are very long; the
tibia hare for half its length, and covered with large hexa-
gonal scales ; the tarsus long, compressed, rounded before
and behind, with eighteen large anterior scutella. The fiind
toe is moderate, with ten scutella ; the second a little shorter
than the fourth, wdth eighteen ; the third with twenty-six ;
the fourth with twenty-four scutella, and connected with
the third by a basal web. The claws are rather long,
arched, compressed, acute; that of the middle toe serrate,
with twenty teeth.

The plumage is very soft and blended. The feathers of
the occiput and nape elongated; three of them very long,
slender, tapering, compact, decurved or pendent ; the longest
measuring five inches. On the lower part of the neck ante-
riorly are numerous elongated, slender, tapering, compact
feathers ; the longest four inches and a half. From the fore
part of the back arise four series of very elongated feathers,
having their shafts very slender, straight, but toward the
end recurved ; and their filaments long, distant, and pendent.
The wings are long and broad, with the third quill longest,
but scarcely exceeding the first two ; one of the inner secon-
daries is only a quarter of an inch shorter than the longest
primary when the Aving is closed. The tail is short, nearly
even, of twelve weak, rounded feathers. Part of the breast
covered with down only ; and the same patches of oily brittle
down as in tlie other species occur in this.

The bill is black ; a small part of the base and the bare
space on each side of the head light green. The bare part
of the tibia, the upper half of the tarsus, and its anterior
scutella are black ; the rest of the tarsus and the toes
greenish-yellow ; the claws black. The plumage is entirely
wliite.

Length to end of tail 24 inches ; extent of wings 38 ;
wing from flexure lOf ; tail 8| ; bill along the ridge 3-j^,

LITTLE WHITE EGRET. 478

along the edge of lower mandible 4-,^, its height -/-j ; bare
part of tibia ^ ; tarsus 4-,^ ; first toe \j^, its claw -^ ; second
toe l-[8j, its claw -^ ; third toe 2-^, its claw -^ ; fourth toe
IfJ, its claw ^.

Female. — The female is similar to the male, but a
little less.

Habits. — This species is said to occur in Japan, India,
the countries bordering on the Red Sea, Egypt, various parts
of Asia, the eastern portions of the south of Europe, as well
as Turkey, Italy, Sicily, France, and Germany ; being of
rare occurrence, however, in the latter countries, where it is
migratory. In England it is merely an accidental visitant,
and in Scotland has not, I believe, been met with. Its
habits may be supposed similar to those of other Herons ;
for I am not aware of anything very definite being known
respecting them.

474

EGRETTA RUSSATA. THE BUFF-BACKED
EGRET.

Ardea nissata. "Wagler Syst. Av.

Little \Vtite Heron. Ardea tequinoctialis. Mont. Om. Diet. Snpplt.

liuff-baeked Heron. Ai-dea russata. Selb. Illustr. II. 24.

Ardea russata. Buff-backed Heron: Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 188.

Buphus russatus. Bonap. Conip. List. 47.

Bill stout, tail slightly emarginate. Adult with the
feathers of the hind head and neck elongated, hairlike, and
reddish-yellow ; dorsal plumes slender, decomposed, and of
the same colour ; fore part of hrcast and back tinged with
cream-colour ; the rest of the phimage white ; hill pale yellow ;
feet dusky anteriorly, yellowish behind. Young without
elongated feathers, pure tchite, except the head, which is
tinged with yellow ; bill pale yellow ; feet dusky green.

This beautiful Egret, of which only a single specimen has
been obtained in England, has the bill proportionally stouter,
the neck and legs shorter, and the toes longer than in many
other species ; but those, and other characters "which it pre-
sents, do not seem to me sufficient to justify Boie and the
Prince of Musignano in referring it to a genus by itself.
Egretta candidissima and rufescens, both referred by the
latter author to the same genus as EgTctta Leuce and alba,
differ from these species and from each other, quite as much
as tliey differ from the present. In short, "were this arbitrary
fonnation of genera tolerated, every single species of the
family ought to constitute a genus.

Male. — Much inferior in size to Egretta Garzetta, and
about equal to Egretta candidissima, although differing from

BUFF-BACKED EGRET. 476

botli in its proportions, in which it comes near to Ardea
speciosa, the adult of this species may be described as having
the body moderate, the neck lonf^f and rather thick, the head
ovato-oblong. The bill is about a fourth longer than the
head, rather stout, straight, compressed, tapering; upper
mandible with the dorsal line straight until toward the end,
when it becomes considerably decurved, the sides convex,
the groove extending to a fifth from the end ; the edges
sharp, serrulate ; the tip acute ; the lower mandible wdtli
the angle very long and extremely narrow, the dorsal line
very slightly ascending, the sides concave, the edges sharp
and serrulate, the tip acuminate, the gape-line slightly
arclied.

The feet, although long and slender, are much shorter
than those of some other species of about the same size,
Egretta candidissima, for example. The bare part of the
tibia is also scutellate in front, it being reticulate in most
species ; the tarsus has very broad anterior scutella ; the
toes are long, slender, scutellate ; the claws long, very
slender, tapering, compressed, arcuate ; that of the middle
toe serrate.

The plimiage is soft and moderately full. The feathers
on the upper part of the head, nape, and the hind part of the
neck are elongated, with stiffish, haii--like glossy filaments ;
and there is a bare space at the base of the neck behind. On
tlie fore part of the neck the feathers are moderate, but at the
lower part enlarged, ^Adth the filaments disunited toward the
end. On the breast and behind the thighs are yellow greasy
down-plumelets, as in the other species. From the back
arise four series of plumes, having disunited hair-like fila-
ments, some of them extending nearly to the end of the tail.
The other feathers on the fore part of the back are ovate,
those on its hind part downy. The wings are long and
broad ; the third quill longest, the second half-a- twelfth
shorter, and exceeding the first by only two-twelfths. The
tail is a little emarginate, the lateral feathers being a twelfth
and a half longer than those in the middle. The wings
when folded are slightly longer than the tail, which is short
and slightly emarginate.

476 EGRETTA RUSSATA.

The bill and loral spaces are pale yellow ; the bare part
of the tibia is yellowish ; the anterior part of the tarsus and
toes dusky ; their hind part tinged with yellow ; the claws
black. The "general colour of the plumage is white ; but the
feathers on the upper part and sides of the head, those on
the hind part and lower fore part of the neck, are of a
golden-ochrey tint ; as are the elongated plinnes of the back,
of which the fore part is also tinged with the same colour ;
the fore part and sides of the neck are of a tint approaching
to cream colour, as is the fore part of the breast.

Length to end of tail 20 inches ; bill along the ridge 2-j^,
along the edge of lower mandible 3-,^; wing from flexure
9\^ ; tail 3-^ ; bare part of tibia 1-j^ ; tarsus 3^ ; middle
toe 2-^, its claw ^.

Female. — The female is similar to the male.

Habits. — This species, according to Wagler, occurs in
Greece, Spain, and Italy ; in Persia, Egypt, Nubia, Cyprus,
and Senegambia ; is not unfrequent in Southern Africa,
common in Java, and, as it would appear, in New Holland.
Of its habits I find no account.

Young. — An individual from Bengal in my collection is
as follows : — The general form and the proportions of the
parts are as described above. On the tibia are eight scu-
tella, on the tarsus eighteen, on the hind toe ten, on the
second eighteen, the third twenty-eight, the fourth twenty-
four. The claws are long, very slender, and finely pointed ;
the edge of the third with twenty-five teeth.

The feathers are oblong or ovate, and rather blended.
There are no elongated decomposed plumes on the back.
The quills are thirty, besides eight humerals ; the third
longest, the second half a twelfth shorter, the first a twelfth
and three-fourths shorter than the second. When the wing
is closed, one of the inner secondaries is only two-twelftlis of
an inch shorter than the longest primary. The tail is a
little emarfjinate, the lateral feathers bein<]r a twelfth and a

BUFF-BACKED EGRET. 477

half longer than those in the middle. The wings when
folded are slightly longer than the tail.

The bill is pale yellow, with the ridge light brown toward
the end. The plumage is white ; but the upper part of the
head, a portion of the baek, and the fore part of the breast,
are tinged with cream-colour.

Length to end of tail 20 inches ; bill along the ridge 2-^,
along the edge of lower mandible 3-^ ; wing from flexure
9-j% ; tail o-^ ; bare part of tibia l-^ ; tarsus S^ ; first toe
1-jV, its claw \^ ; second toe 1-j^, its claw -j^ ; third toe 2^,
its claw -j^ ; fourth toe l-f|, its claw -j%.

Remarks. — The only specimen of this bird obtained in
Britain is a female, shot near Kingsbridge, in the end of
October, 1805, and presented to Montagu by Mr. Nicholas
Luscombe of that place. The description, taken from the
Supplement to the Ornithological Dictionary, is as follows: —

The length is about twenty inches ; the bill two inches
long to the feathers on the forehead, and of an orange yellow ;
the lore and orbits the same ; irides pale yellow. The whole
plumage is snowy white, except the crown of the head, and
the upper part of the neck before, which are buff : legs three
inches and a half long, and one inch and a half bare space
above the knee ; these parts are nearly black with a tinge of
green ; the toes and claws are of the same colour, the middle
claw pectinated.

On the back of the head the feathers are a trifle elongated,
but scarcely to be called a crest ; on the lower part of the
neck before, the feathers are more elongated, and though not
slender, hang detached over the upper part of the breast : the
tail when closed is in a slight degree forked, and so short as
to be entirely covered by the wings w'hen folded.

This elegant little species of Heron had been seen for
several days in the same field attending some cows, and
picking up insects, which were found in its stomach. It was
by no means shy, but suffered a bungling marksman to fire
twice before he could kill it. The situation where it was
shot was the southernmost promontory of Devon, very near
the coast, between the Start and the Prawl.

478 EGRETTA RUSSATA.

Montag^u mistook it for Ardea acquinoctialis of Linnaeus ;
but the error was detected after it had, aloncj with his collec-
tion, been transferred to the British Museum. Its dimen-
sions, taken by Mr, Jenyns arc as follows : —

Entire len<j:th 20^ inches; length of the bill from the
forehead 'ij--^, from the gape 2-J-§- ; of the tarsus 3 ; of the
naked part of the tibia 1-j^ ; of the middle toe, claw included,
2-^; of the tail 4; from the carpus to the end of the
wing 10.

479

CICONIA. STORK.

The Storks resemble the Herons, from which, however, they
are distinguished by their more robust form, larger bill, and
shorter toes, with convex and obtuse claws, that of the
middle toe without serrature. They are also larger and more
portly birds, some of them even gigantic. Their body, how-
ever, is compressed, the neck long and rather thick ; the
head ovate, convex above, moderately compressed.

Bill much longer than the head, straight, stout, conical,
moderately compressed, tapering to a sharp point ; upper
mandible with the dorsal line nearly quite straight, the sides
sloping and somewhat convex, the ridge obtuse, no nasal
sinus or groove, the edges sharp and direct, the tip acute ;
lower mandible with the angle very long and narrow, the
dorsal line ascending and very slightly convex, the sides in-
clined outwards and somewhat convex, the edges sharp, the
tip acute ; the gape-line straight, commencing under the eye.

Nostrils oblong, perforated in the bill near the ridge.
Eyes small, surrounded by a bare space. Aperture of the ear
roundish, rather large.

Legs very long, rather slender ; tibia bare for about half
its length, reticulated ; tarsus long, compressed, reticulated ;
hind toe short, and shghtly elevated ; anterior toes of mode-
rate length, webbed at the base, scutellate, but at the base
reticulate ; claws short, convex, obtuse.

Plumage moderately full, generally compact, sometimes
glossy ; feathers of the head and neck oblong, of the lower
part of the neck elongated ; scapulars very large and broad.
Wings long, ample, of thirty quills, the third longest. Tail
rather short, rounded, of twelve feathers.

The Storks belong chiefly to the warmer climates of the

480 CICONIA. STORK.

old continent ; but some of them perform very extended
migrations, betaking themselves to more northern countries
in summer. They reside chiefly in marshy places, where
they feed on fishes, frogs, lizards, occasionally small quad-
rupeds and young birds. Some of the larger species are in a
manner omnivorous, their vulturine appetite being pleased
■with any kind of garbage, dead animals, and vegetable sub-
stances. In migrating, they fly in continuous or angular
lines, but chiefly by night. They nestle on the ground, or
in high places, and lay three or foui- elliptical light-coloured
eggs.

481

CICONIA ALBA. THE WHITE STORK.

Ardea Ciconia. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 2.3-5.

Ardea Ciconia. Lath. Ind. Oru. IL 677.

"White Stork. Mont. Orn. Diet, and Supplt.

Cicogne blanche. Ciconia alba. Teinm. Man. d'Orn. IL 560.

Ciconia alba. White Stork. Flcnj. Hrit. Anini. 97.

White Stork. Ciconia alba. Selb. Illustr. IL 4.5.

Ciconia alba. White Stork. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 192.

Ciconia alba. Bonap. Comp. List. 4G.

Bare part of the sides of the head very small and
smooth ; loral spaces feathered ; bill and feet red ; plumaxje
white; the quills, larger coverts, alula, and scapidars black.

Although the ^^Tiito Stork is of very rare occurrence in
Britain, I have been so fortunate as to obtain for description
an individual shot in Shetland, from which the following
particulars are taken : —

Male. — This stately bird has the body large and com-
pressed, the neck long and rather thick, the head ovate and
moderately compressed.

The bill is about twice the length of the head, straight,
stout, conical, moderately compressed, tapering to a point ;
the upper mandible with the dorsal line straight, very
slightly declinate at the end, the sides sloping and a little
convex ; the ridge, which is obtuse, not separated by grooves;
the edges sharp and direct, the tip acute ; the lower man-
dible with the angle very long and narrow, the dorsal line
ascending and very slightly convex, the sides inclined out-
wards and somewhat convex, the edges sharp, the tip acute ;
the gape-line straight, commencing under the eyes.

The nostrils are ten-twelfths long, direct, sub-basal, per-
forated as it were in the bill, near the ridge. The eyes are
small, surrounded by a bare space of small extent. The
aperture of the ear roundish and rather large.

H H

482 CICOXIA ALBA.

The legs are very long and rather slender ; the tibia bare
for about half its length, reticulated with hexagonal scales ;
the tarsus long, compressed, reticulated all round. The hind
toe is short and slightly elevated ; the anterior toes of mode-
rate length, webbed at the base, scutellate, but at the base
reticulated. On the first toe are ten, on the second fifteen,
the third twenty-five, the fourth twelve scutella. The claws
are short, convex above, broadly rounded at the end ; the
inner edge of the third thin, but not serrate.

The plumage is moderately full, and in general compact.
The loral spaces are not bare as in the Herons ; but there is
a narrow longitudinal space, very slightly feathered, on each
side of the throat. The feathers of the head and neck are
oblong ; those of the lower anterior part of the neck elon-
gated, but rather compact, the longest measuring five inches
and a half. On the anterior part of the back they are
broadly ovate, rounded, compact, and glistening ; on the
hind part of the back smaller, but compact ; on the lower
parts of the body of looser texture. Seven of the scapulars
are very large, broad, rounded at the end, the largest twelve
inches in length. The wings are long and broad, of thirty
quills, and when closed reach the end of the tail ; the first
quill two inches and two-twelfths shorter than the second,
the third longest, exceeding the second by an inch and a
twelfth, and the fourth by an inch and a half. The secon-
daries are very broad and rounded ; some of the inner elon-
gated, one of them being only two inches and a half shorter
than the longest primary when the wing is closed. The
tail is rather short, a little rounded, the outer being an inch
and two-twelfths shorter than the middle feathers. The
down is soft and of ordinary texture ; but there are no
patches of oily, brittle down, as in the Herons.

The bill, tibiae, tarsi, and toes are coral red ; the claws
reddish-brown ; the iris brown ; and the bare skin around
the eyes and throat vermilion. The general colour of the
plumage is white ; but the primary and secondary quills,
their coverts, the alula, and the elongated scapulars are
black, with a purplish-blue gloss. Some of the quills have
a greyish-white tinge on part of their extent.

WHITE STORK. 483

Length to end of tail 42 inches ; extent of wings 7(3 ;
bill along the ridge 7-jij, along the edge of lower mandil)le 9,
its height l-pj ; Aving from flexure 25 ; tail L' ; bare part of
tibia 4^ ; tarsus S-^; hind toe 1, its claw -^ ; second toe
2-,^, its claw -j^ ; third toe S, its claw -{^ ; fourth toe 2-^,
its claw -[^.

Female. — The female is similar to the male.

Habits. — It is not in Britain that the habits of the
White Stork can be studied, its occurrence there being, in
so far as is known, limited to a very few instances. I must
therefore refer to the continental writers for the following
particulars : — In the temperate parts of Europe the Storks
arrive toward the end of spring, and depart in October,
travelling in large flocks, and betaking themselves to Africa
and Asia. In Avinter they are especially abundant in Egypt.
Their northward migration extends as far as the Baltic,
occasionally beyond it ; yet in Britain their appearance is
irregular and accidental.

In most countries, being unmolested on account of their
usefulness in destroying reptiles, they are quite fearless of
man, frequently residing in the towns, and nestling on
chimneys and other elevated parts of buildings. The nest
is flat, composed externally of sticks and twigs, internally of
straws and dry herbage. The eggs, three or four in number,
are of a yellowish-white colour, two inches and three-fourths
in length, two inches in breadth. Incubation continues
thirty days, the male occasionally assisting. The young are
at first covered with brownish down, and remain in the nest
till the end of summer. Their parents accompany them in
their first attempts at flying ; and from this circumstance,
and their assiduity in procuring food, as well as other indi-
cations of affection for their offspring and for each other,
these birds have generally been considered as patterns of
conjugal fidelity and fraternal love. In these respects the
Storks are probably not superior to many other birds,
although from their great size, confidence in man, and re-
markable habits, they attract more notice in places where

4S4 "WHITE STORK.

they are common. In Holland, Flanders, and some parts of
Germany, wooden boxes or frames are placed on the tops of
towers and chimneys to induce them to nestle there ; and he
who has a Stork's nest on his house is esteemed a fortunate
mortal. In England, on the other hand, where the Stork's
habits are unknown, the possession of all the virtues
imaginable would not suffice to protect it from the prowling
ganu'keepor and bird-stufior.

The only individual known to me as having been ob-
tained in Scotland was shot in INIainland, Shetland, and
presented by Mr. M. Cameron to Professor Jameson, who
has deposited it in the Museum of the University of Edin-
burgh. ]Mr. Yarrcll states that one specimen has been killed
in Scotland, communicated to him by Thomas M. Grant,
Esq., and that two examples are said to have been killed in
Shetland. The Rev. INIr. Smith, Monquhitter, informs me
that " during the unusually severe Avinter of 1837-8, a
specimen of this rare bird was shot in a moss in the upper
part of the parish of Lonmay. It was nailed to a barn-door,
where it speedily went to decay. The people who obtained
it compared its red legs to Turkey leather." In the New
Statistical Account of the Parish of Craig, in Forfarshire, it
is stated by the late Mr. Thomas Molison, Montrose, that
" a Stork was lately (1835) seen in the basin, and after-
wards shot at Ethic House." Montagu states that one was
shot near Salisbury, in February, 1790 ; another at Sand-
wich, in Kent, in 1805 ; and a third in Hampshire, in 1808.
Since the latter period several instances of its occurrence
have been noted, chiefly in the southern and eastern parts of
England. One instance of its having been obtained in Ire-
land is recorded, it being stated by Ur Harvey, of Cork, in
the Annals of Natural History, vol. xviii. p. 70, that a fine
specimen was shot in the sunnner of 1846, near Femioy, in
the county of Cork.

YoiNfi. — Wlu'u fledged, the young diff"er from the adult
only in having the bill of a duller tint, and the black parts
of the plumage tinged with brown, and less glossy.

■iSo

CICONIA NIGRA. THE BLACK STOHK.

Ardoa nigra. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 23o.
Ardea nigra. Lath. Ind. Ornith. IL G77.
Black Stork. Mont. Linn. Trans. XIL I'J.
Cicogno noire. Ciconia nigra. Tcmni. Man. d'Om. IL 561.
Ciconia nigra. IJlack Stork. Floni. Brit. Anim. 97.
Black Stork. Ciconia nigra. Sclb. lUustr. IL 48.
Ciconia nigra. Black Stork. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 193.
Ciconia nigra. Bonap. Comp. List. 46.

Bare part of the sides of the head vei'y small, and smooth ;
loral spaces partly bare ; bill and feet red ; plumage broivnish-
black, glossed xoith purple and green ; breast and abdomen
white.

The Black Stork being of so very rare occiuTence in Britain
that only four individuals are recorded as having been
obtained there, I have been obliged to have recourse to a
foreign specimen for the following description : —

Male. — This species is inferior in size to the White
Stork, and proportionally less robust. The bill is more
slender, straight, stout, conical, considerably compressed,
tapering ; the upper mandible with the dorsal line straight,
the sides sloping and convex, the ridge convex, the lateral
grooves faint and extending to about a third from the end,
the edges sharp and direct, with a slight notch close to the
small detlected tip ; the lower mandible with the angle very
long and naiTow, the dorsal line ascending and slightly
convex, the sides inclined outwards and somewhat convex,
the edges sharp and inflected, the tip acute ; the gape-line
straight, commencing under the eyes.

Tiie nostrils are nine-twelfths long, direct, sub-basal,
perforated as it were in the bill, near the ridge. The eyes

486 CICONIA NIGRA.

are small, surrounded by a bare space of small extent. The
aperture of the ear roundish and rather large.

The legs are very long, and rather slender ; the tibia bare
for about half its length, reticulated -with hexagonal scales ;
the tarsus long, compressed, reticulated all round. The
hind toe is small and slightly elevated. ; the anterior toes of
moderate length, webbed at the base, the outer web much
larger ; all scutellate, but at the base more or less reticulate.
On the first toe are six, on the second sixteen, on the third
thirty, on the foiu'th twenty-eight scutella. The claws
are small, arcuato-declinate, compressed, toward the end
depressed, obtuse ; the inner edge of the third not serrate.

The plumage is moderately full, generally compact. The
loral spaces are partially bare. The feathers of the head and
neck are small and oblong ; those of the lower anterior part
of the neck moderately elongated ; on the other parts large
and ovato-oblong ; some of the scapulars very large, broad,
and rounded. The wings are long and broad, of thirty quills,
and when closed reach to the end of the tail ; the first quill
nearly an inch shorter than the second, the second and third
longest ; the secondaries very broad and rounded, the inner
elongated. The tail is of moderate length and rounded.

The bill and bare space around the eyes are orange-red ;
the iris brown ; the feet orange-red, the claws brown. The
head, the neck all round, the back, wings, and tail, are
brownish-black, glossed with purple and green, the lower
parts white.

Length to end of tail 38 inches ; wing from flexure 20^ ;
tail 8 ; bill along the ridge Tt|-, along the edge of lower man-
dible 8;|- ; bare part of tibia 4:^, tarsus 8^ ; first toe -L^, its
claw -^ ; second toe 2fj, its claw -y^ ; third toe 3^, its claw
-j^ ; fourth toe 2\l-, its claAv y\.

Femai.k. — The female is similar to the male.

Habits. — This species is generally dispersed over the
eastern and middle parts of the continent, and occurs occa-
sionally in the northern and western. It is said to live in
wooded marshes, and to feed on fishes, frogs, and insects.

BLACK STORK. 487

According to M. Temminck, it nestles on the tallest pines
and firs, laying two or three eggs of a dull white shaded with
green, and sometimes marked with a small number of brown
spots. Wagler states that it is " not very rare in France,
Hungary, Poland, Austria, Bavaria, Switzerland, Prussia,
but never occurs in Holland. Frequent in Persia, as well as
Nubia, Senagambia, and CafFraria. It prefers marshy places
in forests, seldom betaking itself to the shores of rivers and
marshes, nestles in extensive woods, building its ample nest
on the tops of the trees, and laying two or three dull white
eggs, tinged with green, and sometimes marked with a few
dusky spots. It feeds on small fishes, frogs, locusts, and
other insects, and is of a very timid disposition."

Young. — According to M. Temminck, the young have
the bill, the bare skin about the eyes, that on the throat, as
well as the feet, olive-green ; the head and neck brownish-
red, with reddish borders ; the body, wings, and tail blackish-
brown, with slight bluish and greenish reflections.

488

TANTALIX.E.

TANTALI AND ALLIED SPECIES.

The Tantalinae, of which there are only three genera, Tan-
talus, Ibis, and Phitalea, are birds of large or moderate size,
Avhich in external aspect combine the characters of the
Herons or Storks and Curlews, and in their internal
organization are intermediate between these groups. They
have the head bare in front, sometimes over its whole
extent; rather large in the Tantah, but small in some of
the Ibises. The neck is always elongated and slender.
The tongue extremely short, triangular, flattened ; the
oesophagus generally wide ; the stomach moderately mus-
cular ; the intestine long, and having two generally very
small coeca, in which respect it differs from that of the
Herons.

The legs are long, rather stout in some, slender in
others ; the tibia bare to a large extent ; the tarsus reticu-
late, but sometimes scutellate in front ; the four toes articu-
lated on the same level, the anterior long and webbed at the
base ; the claws arched, compressed, and rather obtuse.

The plumage is blended, on the upper parts compact ;
its colouring in masses. The Avings ample, with the second
or third quill longest. The tail short, of twelve feathers.

The s])ecies belong exclusively to warm climates, and
none of tlunn migrate to very cold countries for the purpose
of breeding. Their nests resemble those of the Heron
family, being rudely constructed, and placed on trees or on
the ground. Their eggs are few in number, oval or sub-
elliptical, and spotted. The young remain in the nest or its
vicinity until they are able to fly. Fishes, reptiles, crus-

TANTALINA:. 489

liicea, inollusca, insects, and other small animals form the
food of the Tantalinae, of which a few individuals only of
two species are rarely met with in this country.

SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES.

GENUS I. IBIS. IBIS.

Head small, compressed, oblong, bare before the eyes,
often to a greater extent. ]^ill very long, tapering, slender,
compressed, arcuate, obtuse ; the ridge convex, broader
toward the end, the sides with a deep narrow groove ex-
tending to the tip. I-iCgs very long, slender ; tarsi reticulate,
sometimes scutellate ; anterior toes connected by membranes
at the base. Wings ample, Avith the second quill longest.

1. Ibis FalcineUus. Glossy Ibis. Neck, breast, and
lower parts chestnut-red ; back, wing, and tail glossy green,
with purple tints.

GENUS II. PLATALEA. SPOONBILL.

Head of moderate size, flattened above, bare before the
eyes. Bill very long, depressed, contracted in the middle,
at the end expanded into a large obovate flat disk. Legs
long, rather stout ; tarsus reticulate ; anterior toes connected
by membranes at the base. Wings ample, with the second
quill longest.

1. Platalea Leucorodia. JV7iite Spoonbill. Plumage
white ; the crest tinged Avith yellow ; the lower part of the
neck and a portion of the breast bufi-coloured.

490

IBIS. IBIS. •

The birds of which this genus is formed are intermediate
between the Tantali and Numenii, some of the larger species
approaching the former, while some of the smaller are very
similar to the latter. They are also most intimately allied
to the Spoonbills, which, in fact, are Ibises with the bill
singularly flattened and expanded. The gradation from Ibis
Falcincllus, the only British species, to Numenius Arquata,
is almost so direct as to leave room for no intermediate form.
The digestive organs and many of the habits of these birds
are similar, and it does not appear that any unprejudiced
person could refuse to admit that the Ibises are very closely
alUed to the Scolopacinje, although they also have an affinity
to the Ardeinae, the gradation to which is completed by the
intervention of the genus Tantalus. They are generally of
moderate size, Avith the body ovate, robust in the larger
species, rather slender in the smaller ; the neck long and
slender ; the head small, oblong, and compressed.

Bill very long, slender, rather thick at the base, arcuate,
tapering, compressed, toward the end somewhat cylindrical
and slightly enlarged at the end, which is obtuse ; upper
mandible with the dorsal line arched, the ridge rather narrow,
more convex toward the end, separated from the sides by a
narrow groove, which extends from the base to the tip ; the
sides, Avhich at the base are erect and flat, toward the end
narrowed and convex, the edges sharp and direct or somewhat
inflected, the tip rather blunt and scarcely longer than that
of the other; lower mandible with the angle long, very
narrow, with a groove extending from it to the tip, the sides
erect or a little inclined inwards, and flat or somewhat con-
cave, beyond the middle convex, the edges inclinate and
sharp, the tip obtuse ; the gape-line arcuate, commencing
before the eyes.

Mouth rather narrow ; palate flattened, with an anterior

IBIS. IBIS. 491

longitudinal ridge ; upper mandible little concave, with
two or four prominent lines. Tongue extremely short, tri-
angular, flat, tliin, broadly oniarginatc and ])apillate at the
base, its tip ol)tuso, Q'jsopliagus wide, pruvcutriculus mode-
rate ; stomach large, broadly elliptical; its muscular coat
very thick, witli the lateral and inferior muscles distinct and
strong ; the epithelium thick, dense, longitudiiuilly rugous ;
intestine rather long, of moderate width; coeca very small
and cylindrical ; cloaca globular.

Nostrils linear or oblong, sub-basal, in the fore part of
the narrow bare nasal membrane. Eyes rather small. Aper-
ture of ear very small. Feet long and rather slender ; tibia
bare for a considerable space, and reticulated with hexagonal
scales ; tarsus rather long, reticulate in the larger species,
scutellate in the smaller, or partially reticulate and scutel-
late ; toes rather long, moderately stout ; the first more
slender, articulated on the same plane as the rest ; the
second a little shorter than the third ; all scutellate in their
whole length, flattened beneath ; the anterior Avebbed at the
base. Claws short or moderate, slender, compressed, slightly
arched, acute, that of the middle toe with the inner edge
thin.

In young birds the head is feathered, except the loral
spaces and the skin between the crura of the lower man-
dible ; but in old birds, one species excepted, more or less of
the head, sometimes the face and throat, sometimes the
whole head, and sometimes nearly the whole neck besides,
are denuded. Plumage moderate ; feathers of the head and
neck slender, on the other parts ovate and of moderate
length. Wings long or of moderate length, broad, of about
twenty-five quills ; primaries firm, broad, rounded, the outer
three somewhat sinuate on the inner web, the third gene-
rally longest, the second a little shorter, and not much
exceeding the first ; secondaries broad and rounded, some of
the inner about as long as the longest primary Avhen the
wing is closed, or longer, decurved, with the filaments loose.
Tail short or moderate, even or rounded, of twelve broad,
rounded feathers.

From Tantalus to Ibis the transition is evident, while

492 IBIS. IBIS.

between Ibis and Numenius there is scarcely any interval.
With respect to the digestive organs, the Ibises nearly cor-
respond with the Nunienii, and differ entirely from the
Herons, their a^sojjhagus being the only part that in width
approaches to theirs. In the Herons the stomach is large,
round, and membranous, the intestine very long and ex-
tremely slender, the Ctt'ca wanting; whereas in the Ibises
the stomach is of small capacity, but very muscular, the
intestine of moderate length and rather wide, and the coeca
present, although very small. The tongue of the Ibises is
shorter than that of the Curlews, and resembles that of the
Spoonbills, but differs entirely from that of the Herons.

The sexes are similar, the female being only a little
smaller. The young, however, are differently coloured. The
Ibises belong to the tropical and warmer regions of both
continents, or if some reside also in the temperate parts,
they migrate southward in autumn. AVhile in the form
of the feet, and also in some measure in that of the
wings and tail, they bear a considerable resemblance to the
Herons, they also resemble them somewhat in their mode
of walking and flying. According to M. Sa^'igny, the two
species which occur in Egypt feed on worms and small
fresh-water mollusca, but never attack serpents, as had long
been believed. They are generally gregarious. Both have
a powerful and elevated flight, their pectoral muscles being
very thick ; they fly with the neck and feet extended hori-
zontally, and at intervals simultaneously emit low and very
hoarse cries. When they have alighted on newly uncovered
places, they may be seen for hours in the same spot,
unceasingly thrusting their bill into the mud. They never,
like our Curlews, start off and run with rapidity, but always
advance step by step. M. Audubon states that the White
Ibis nestles in trees or bushes, like some Herons, laying
three spotted eggs. The young, at first covered with thick
down, often leave the nest long before they are able to fly,
and are easily caught. The flight of this species, he says,
is rapid and protracted, and at times, like the Red Ibis and
Tantalus Loculator, it rises to a great licight, ])erforming
various evolutions. It feeds on crayfish, worms, and mollusca.

403

IBIS FALCINELLUS. THE GLOSSY IBIS.

'^sfe'^^.

Fio. 39.

Tantalus Falcinellus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 241.

Tantalus Falcinellus. Lath. Ind. Orn. IL 707.

Tantalus igncus, T. viridis. Gmcl. Lath. Young.

L'Ibis noir. Savigny. Hist. Nat. et Mith. de I'lbis. p. 36.

Glossy Ibis. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Ibis falcinclle. Ibis Falcinellus. Tcmm. Man. d'Om. II. 598.

Glossy Ibis. Ibis Falcinellus. Sclb. Illustr. II. 194.

Ibis Falcinellus. Glossy Ibis. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 194.

Ibis Falcinellus. Bonap. Comp. List, 49.

Head feathered, excepting the loral spaces. Adult with
the feathers of the head and neck lanceolate ayid glossy ; the
neck, breast, and fore part of the hack, deep chestnut-red ;
the hind p)(ii'i of the hack, icings, and tail green, glossed ivith
bronze and purple, the plumage generally with silky lustre.
Young with the feathers of the head and neck oblong, soft,
without gloss, each with two marginal ichite streaks ; the lotcer
parts deep dull brown, the upper glossy, green tinged with
bronze and purple.

Male. — The Glossy Ibis, tlic only species of its genus
that has been found in Britain, is one of those which approach
nearest to the Numenii, and recede farthest from the Tantali,
It is about the same size as our common Curlew, which it

494 IBIS FALCINELLUS.

greatly resembles in form, although it differs in several
respects, as will be seen on comparing the description of the
two species. The body is ratlier slender ; the neck long,
the head rather small, oblong, and compressed.

The bill is very long, slender, arcuate, tapering, com-
pressed ; the upper mandible Avith the dorsal line arcuate,
the ridge rather narrow, more convex toward the end,
separated by a narrow groove, extending to the point, from
the sides, which at the base are nearly erect, but tOAvard the
end very narrow and convex, the edges sharp and inflected,
the tip obtuse, but thin-edged and not probe-pointed as in
the Curlews or Snipes ; the lower mandible more slender,
with the angle long, very narrow, with a groove extending
from it to the tip, the sides erect and flat at the base, vnih a
slight longitudinal gi'oove, beyond the angle convex, the
edges inclinatc and sharp, the tip obtuse, the gape-line
arcuate, commencing before the eyes.

The upper mandible is flat within, but extremely narrow,
with a groove and median prominent line in its basal half,
and four prominent lines toAvard the end ; the lower mandible
still narrower internally, with two prominent lines.

The legs are very long and slender ; the tibia bare and
reticulated for nearly half its length ; the tarsi long, slender,
compressed, anteriorly covered Avith tAAcnty-eight broad
scutella, behind and on the sides Avith small scales. The
toes are rather long, compressed, scutellate aboA-e, flattened
beneath, the anterior connected at the base by membranes,
of Avhich the outer is larger ; the hind toe rather long, the
second a little shorter than the fourth. The claAvs are rather
small, slender, slightly arched, compressed, rather acute, that
of the middle toe Avith the inner edge thin.

A bare space extends on each side from the bill to a little
behind the eye. The plumage is moderate ; the feathers of
the head and neck slender and tapering, of the upper parts
of the body ovate and compact, of the loAver parts blended ;
those of all the upper parts glossy Avith silky lustre. The
Avings arc long and broad, of tAventy-three quills, the first
quill is a quarter of an inch shorter than the second, Avliich
is scarcely exceeded by the third, and longer tlian the fourth,

GLOSSY IBIS. 495

the outer two a little sinuate on the inner web. Some of the
inner secondaries, when the wing is closed, reach to about an
inch of the end of tlie longest primary. The tail is short,
even, or very slightly cmarginate.

The bill is greenish-black, toward the end tinged with
brown ; the bare space on the sides of the head green ; the
irides brown ; the feet greenish-black ; the claws dusky.
The upper parts in general are glossy dark purplish-green.
The upper part and sides of the head dark pinplish-brown ;
the neck all round, the fore part of tlie back, anterior margin
of the wings, breast, abdomen, and tibial feathers, dark
brownish-red; the lower wing-coverts dark green.

Length to end of tail 24 inches ; bill along the ridge 5|-,
along the edge of lower mandible 5-^ ; wing from flexure
11^; tail 4^; bare part of tibia 2^; tarsus S-f^ ; hind toe
\^, its claw ^ ; second toe 1-|4, its claw -^ ; third toe 2-j^,
its claw -fj ; fourth toe l-Lf, its claw ^.

Female. — The female is similar to the male.

Habits. — The Glossy Ibis is very extensively distributed
on the old continent, being found from India and Egypt to
Siberia, and the northern parts of Europe. Wagler states
that it is frequent in Poland, Hungary, Turkey, Austria,
Bavaria, Switzerland, many parts of Germany and Italy ;
also in the Uralian Desert, about the Caspian and Black Seas,
in Siberia and the countries bordering upon it ; as well as in
Egypt and some of the Indian Isles. Several individuals
have been obtained in various parts of England, from Corn-
wall and Devonshire to Northumberland ; but in that country
it is merely an occasional or accidental visitant ; and, I
believe, has very seldom been seen in Scotland, although I
have seen skins of two individuals shot there : one in Ayr-
shii-e, the other near Banchory, Kincardineshire. It is not,
it appears, permanently resident in any part of Europe, but
migrates to Asia in the end of autumn. It is said to fre-
quent the shores of rivers and lakes, and to feed upon insects,
worms, mollusca, and vegetable substances.

Like the White Ibis, this species was held in high vene-

496 IBIS FALCIXELLUS.

ration by the ancient Ej^yptians, and is not unfrequently
found preserved in their sepulchres. It was distinguished
from that bird by the name of " Black Ibis," as is shown by
Savigny, who, in his Histoire Naturelle ct Mythologique de
ribis, presents us with the followinjii: account of it : — " There
is in Egypt another Numenius, which is as much attached
to that country as the white species, and is even more
numerous there. This second species, inferior in size to the
first, is distinguished from it especially by the want of white
in its plumage, and by the feathers with wliich the neck and
head are always well clothed. All the upper part of the
body is black with very rich green and purple reflections ; all
the lower part of a gi-eyish-black, which also reflects the
tints, but in a less degree ; and these two colours are nearly
the same as those seen in the decomposed feathers, and at
the tips of the large quills of Numenius Ibis, It happens,
however, that in the old individuals, the belly and thighs
take a deep chestnut tint, which sometimes extends over the
breast. The feathers of the head and the whole neck are
blackish, slightly bordered Avith Avhitish, darker on the top
of the head and on the nape, which are glossy. The bill and
feet have exactly the same form as those of Numenius Ibis ;
only they are not so thick. They seem at first black, but on
being more closely examined show a greyish-olive colour.
The feet are also proportionally longer, and the bill is a little
shorter. The tongue is smaller, somewhat lanceolate, and
very obtuse ; the irides are brown. In other respects the
two species are very similar ; and the only differences which
the Egyptians consider as presented by them, and which may
be remarked at a glance, and when the birds are not looked at
closely, is that the one is black and white, and that the other
appears entii-ely black. These two Numenii are the only
species that regularly arrive in Egypt at certain periods.
That of Bclon, with the head, bill, and feet red, is so seldom
seen there, that the people can only have the most imperfect
idea of it. They are of a certainty the only species which
the present inhabitants know, and are named l)y tlu>m; and
in the course of more than three years, when the French
army was in Eg}'pt, neither I, nor any person whom I know,

GLOSSY IBIS. 4'J7

saw any otlier species. Let it now be remembered tliat the
ancient Ej^yptians honoured two species of Ibis ; that the
essential distinction cstabHslicd by Herodotus between tliesc
birds is equally obvious in ours, and moreover that which the
Arabs still remark in them ; that the White Ibis was very
black on the head, neck, tips of the win*^s, and the runij),
while the Black Ibis was very black all over ; an expression
which the Greek historian employs only with doubt and by
contrast, and, in all cases, which he has evidently used to
designate a black colour with rich reflections, and even a
greyish-black, since both of these colours exist in the plumage
of the White Ibis : let all this bo remembered, and wo shall
be forced to agree that our second species of Numenius is
also the Black Ibis of which the ancients have made mention.
We come to this conclusion with perfect strictness, unless we
reject all that we may consider as previously proved, namely,
that our White Ibis is the true White Ibis of the ancient
Egyptians. If it were necessary to add another proof to these
various considerations, I would take one which would of
itself confirm the opinion that I have just advanced : the
bird which I present as the Black Ibis has not lost its ancient
Egyptian name, that of Leheras or leheras, which Aristotle
has recorded, and which recurs as it were without alteration
in the Ai-abian name El hareiz, also pronounced El liareis,
and even El hereis, which this bird receives at Menzala,
Damietta, Bosetta, and in the whole of the Delta, from the
Egyptians of the present day.

" The Black Ibis, as is known, occurs not only in Egj'pt,
but in Europe, for example, in Denmark, Germany, and
especially in Italy, where it is migratory, and arrives in
spring in great numbers, according to Mauduit, who has
given its colours in detail, but says nothing of its habits.
However, I do not believe that it ever entered the mind of a
Eui-opean that this bird preys on serpents ; and Avhen I affirm
the contrary, I assuredly have no fear of being contradicted
by the naturalists who, engaging after me in the same subject,
may easily judge of the accuracy of these first statements by
their own observations. The anatomical inspection of the
Black Ibis made me at first think that it had a nearly as

I I

498 IBIS FALCINELLUS.

exclusive taste for fresh-water shell-fish as the White Ibis ;
and tliis was afterwards demonstrated to me, since in fact,
nothinjT; else was found in the gizzard of more than twenty
individuals which I successively opened, only the bird selects
shell-fish sufficiently small for the width of its gullet ; for, as
all its external forms arc slender, and have not so much
breadth as those of the White Ibis, its internal organs have
been correspondingly contracted. The oesophagus is narrower,
the gizzard, although still very muscular, is less thick, the
intestines are more slender, the cooca more attenuated; but
these slight differences do not prevent the organization and
the appetites from being the same in the two species,"

The same author has described this species as feeding
chiefly on small univalve fluviatile shells, of the genera
planorbis, ampullaria, cyclostoma, and others, which abound
in the canals and ditches along the Nile. Its mode of nest-
ling has not been ascertained.

Young. — The young in the second year are thus described
by Wagler : — " Closely resembling the adult, with the head
and upper part of the neck blackish-brown, with slender
longitudinal white streaks ; the lower part of the neck, the
breast, belly and tibia? greyish-black (at a more advanced age
more or less approaching to chestnut), the upper part of the
back and scapulars of a more or less deep and bright chest-
nut-brown." The young in the first year, he says, have the
head and neck marked with broader and more numerous
white streaks, the lower parts of the body verging more
toward blackish-grey.

In a young individual, from Bengal, in my collection, the
feathers of the head and neck are very small, oblong, soft,
blended, witliout lustre, but of a dull dark brown colour, each
with two marginal slender streaks of white ; the lower parts
deep sooty brown, without gloss, excepting the sides ; the
upper parts glossy l)lackish-grcen with bronze and purple
tints ; tli(> primary quills and some of the secondaries deep
green. The bill is shorter and more slender than in the adult.

Hemarks. — In thib species, the tarsi, which are about

GLOSSY IBIS. 499

the same length as, or very little longer than, the middle toe
with its claw, are covered anteriorly with scutella in their
whole length, excepting about half an inch at the upper part.
Ibis rubra and Ibis alba, in which the bill is a little thicker,
have the tarsi similarly proportioned as to length, but stronger,
and with transverse roAvs of scales below as well as above.
Ibis religiosa has the bill and tarsi much stouter, and the latter
without any scutella, but in place of them hexagonal scales.
AVagler says that both these species, and Ibis Macei, which
differs extremely little, if at all, from Ibis religiosa, have scu-
tella in the middle of the tarsus ; but in my specimens the
acrotarsia,are entirely reticulate, as is also the case in Savigny's
figures of the Egyptian Ibis. All these Ibises differ in the
extent of the bare space on the head, it being in one confined
to the lores, and in another extending over the whole head,
and even the neck almost to its base. Now if, notwith-
standing, all these birds are of one genus, certainly, a fortiori,
scutellate tarsi and reticulate tarsi may exist in the same
family. On tlie principle of the very minute division adopted
by some, every single species of Ibis ought to form a genus.
It is very strange tbat neither Mr. Swainson, nor the Prince
of Musignano, both famous for instituting genera on slight
grounds, should not have separated the Ibis religiosa, with
its bare head and neck, decomposed and decurved secon-
daries, and reticulate acrotarsia, from Ibis falcinellus, which
has not one of these characters. Surely the differences
are much greater than those between Tringa and Pelidna,
Squatarola and Charadrius, Picus and any one of its dismem-
beiments, Astur and Accipiter. Ibis Fulcinellus has, how-
ever, been made the type of a genus ; and, I tliiuk, without
much impropriety.

500

PLATALEA. SPOONBILL.

The Spoonbills may be said to be Ibises, with the bill flat-
tened and expanded toward the extremity. They are birds
of rather large size, having the body ovate, the neck long
and rather slender, the head of moderate size, ovate, and
flattened above, but little compressed.

Bill very long, being at least three times the length of
the head, nearly straight, extremely depressed, being, when
viewed from above, nearly as broad as the head at the base,
gradually narrowed toward the middle, then expanding into
an obovate disk much broader than the head ; but Avhen
viewed laterally extremely slender, unless at the base ; upper
mandible with the dorsal line at first descending, then nearly
straight to the end, where it is decurved ; the ridge ex-
tremely broad and flat, gradually widening beyond the nos-
trils ; the sides rather broad, convex, and transversely rugose
at the base, gi'adually narrowed to the middle, then widened,
and again narrowed toward the tip, forming, as it were, in
its whole length a margin to the flattened ridge, from which
they are separated by a narrow groove ; lower mandible with
the angle very long and narrow, the dorsal line indicated by
a groove, Avhich is straight until at the end, where it is
decurved, the crura narrow, gTadually flattened, then ex-
panded into a disk, similar to that of the upper mandible,
the edges thin and obtuse. Both mandibles are covered
with a thin and soft skin ; the gai)e-line nearly straight.

Mouth rather narrow, its roof behind with two rows of
obtuse ])apilla^ ; both mandibles internally flattened, with a
nu'dial gruuve, and beautifully marked with very narrow
elevated lines and gi-ooves ])arallel to the margins. Tongue
extremely small, broader than long, at the base emarginatc
and papillate. There is a dilatable gular sac of small extent,

PLATALEA. SPOONBILL. .001

tnialogoiis to tliat of the Ibises and Cormorants. Tlie oeso-
phagus is rather wide; the proventriculus bulbiform, with
large cylindrical glandules. The stomach is rather large,
roundish, with the muscular coat thick, its fibres disposed in
large fasciculi ; the central tendons very large ; the epithe-
lium very thick, rather soft. The intestine is very long and
of moderate width, or rather narrow ; there are two ex-
tronu>ly short cax-a, and the cloaca is large and globular.

The nostrils linear-elliptical, sub-basal, vertical. Eyes
small, in a bare space, which extends to the bill. Aperture
of ear rather snuill and roundish.

Legs long, rather slender ; tibia bare in its lower half,
and reticulated with hexagonal scales ; tarsus rather long,
stoutish, roundish, also reticulated all round with similar
scales ; toes rather long, moderately stout ; the first more
slender, articulated on the same plane as the rest ; the
second considerably shorter than the third ; all scutcllate,
unless at the base, fiattcned beneath ; the anterior connected
by basal webs. Claws small, slightly arched, compressed,
tapering, pointed, that of the middle toe with a thin
inner edge.

The bare space on the head varies, being in one species
confined to the loral spaces and gular sac, in another in-
cluding the head and a portion of the neck ; whence it is
apparent that this character is of no value as indicative of
distinct genera among birds otherwise similar ; for which
reason it cannot ap})ly to the Herons. Plumage moderate ;
feathers of the head and neck slender ; on the other parts
ovate and of moderate length. Wings long, broad, of about
thirty quills ; primaries firm, broad, rounded, the outer three
somewhat sinuate on the inner web, the second longest, the
third next, the first and fourth nearly equal; secondaries
very broad and roimded. Tail short, even, of twelve broad,
rounded feathers.

Now, with regard to external form, the Spoonbills are
obviously nearest to the Ibises, and also approximate to the
Curlews. Their sternum is precisely similar to that of the
Scolopacina^ ; their cervical vertebra? have no resemblance
to those of the Herons, from wliich they diifer also in

502 PLATALEA. SPOONBILL.

having two lateral coeca, these birds having none but a caput
coecum. The oesophagus and proventriculus are similar to
those of the Curlews ; the stomach has some resemblance to
that of a Heron, it having the muscular fasciculi similarly
disposed, hut differs in b«nng much thicker ; and the intes-
tines are much wider, and have thicker walls, than those of
the Herons. In short, the most direct affinity of Platalea is
to Ibis and Tantalus, while it approximates also to Numenius
and other Scolopacina? ; or, as I have elsewhere remarked,
" the compact form of the body, its great muscularity, the
form of the legs, the length and slenderness of the neck,
the form and bareness of the head (in one specimen at least),
and the elongation of the bill, especially when it is laterally
viewed, all indicate an affinity to the Tantali and Numenii.
But the Spoonbills are also allied in various degrees to the
Herons and even the Pelicaninec, which latter they resemble
in the bare gular sac especially ; so that they clearly present
one of those remarkable centres of radiation, demonstrative
of the absurdity of quinary and circular arrangements,
founded merely on a comj)arison of skins."

It is very rcnunkable that the trachea differs greatly in
the two species known to me, it being in the American or
Roseate divided high up on the neck, the bronchi being
thus of extreme length ; Avhile in the European it is not
dinded so high, but on reaching the furcula bends upon
itself, and then in entering the thorax divides.

I have thought it necessary to make the above remarks
on the structme of the birds of this genus, because of the
erroneous ideas of affinity to which the arrangement of
writers ignorant of the subject give rise.

503

PLATALEA LEUCORODIA.
SPOONBILL.

THE WHITE

h,Ur,\

Via. 40.

Platalea Leucorodia. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 231.

Platalea Leucorodia. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 667.

"White Spoonbill. Mont. Orn. Diet, and Supplt.

riatalea Leucorodia. Spatule blanche. Temm. Man. d'Om. II. 695.

"White Spoonbill. Platalea Leucorodia. Selb. Illustr. II. 51.

Platelea Leucorodia. "White Spoonbill. Jen. Brit. Vert, An. 193.

Platalea Leucorodia. fionap. Comp. List, 48.

Adult with a large occipital crest of linear feathers; the
loral spaces and throat bare; the hill black, variegated with
grey or dull yelloir ; a large portion of the expanded part of
the upper mandible yellow; the plumage white; the crest
tinged with yellotc ; the lower part of the neck and a portion
of the breast buff-coloured. Young crestless, with the bill
darker, the plumage white, without yellow on the neck, a?id
with the shafts of the quills and the tips of the primaries and
their coverts black.

M.\LE. — The White Spoonbill, which is about equal in
size to the Egyptian Ibis, occurs so rarely with us, that I am

504 PLATALEA LEITORODIA.

obliged to take the folloAving description from a specimen
procured from Holland, -where it is plentiful : — The body is
ovate, rather full and muscular ; the neck long and slender ;
the head ovate, flattened above and a little compressed.
The bill is about four times the length of the head, straight,
extremely flattened ; the upper mandible an inch and tAVO-
tAvelfths in breadth at the base, giadually narrowed to nine-
twelfths, and enlarged at the end to two inches, forming
there an obovate plate ; the dorsal line descending to beyond
the nostrils, then straight, decurved at the tip, which is
obtuse and formed by a broad short unguis having several
prominent ruga? ; the sides at the base transversely undu-
lated ; the margins as well as the terminal part of the plate
flnely scrobiculate ; the lower mandible with the angle very
narrow, a groove from it to the tip, which is slightly
decurved ; the crura narrow, gradually flattened, the ex-
tremity forming an obovate plate. Internally, both man-
dibles are marked with fine ridges and grooves, which may
be said to be more or less parallel with the margins. On
the upper are two longitudinal series of obtuse protube-
rances, and the inner edge of the crura of the lower is
similarly marked.

The nostrils arc linear-oblong, six-twelfths in length,
sub-basal, vertical in the narrow grooves between the ridge
and sides. The eyes are small, three-and-a-half-twelfths in
width. The aperture of the ear is also small and roundish.
The legs are rather long, somewhat slender ; the tibia bare
for nearly half its length, and with the tarsus reticulated
with sub-hexagonal scales ; the toes rather long and slender ;
the first very slender, with twelve scutella ; the second con-
sideraldy shorter than the fourth, with twenty-two, the
third with thirty-six, the fourth with twenty-foiir scutella,
besides basal scales ; the anterior largely webbed. The
claws are small, little arched, tapering, much compressed,
rather blunted.

The skin of the throat is bare to the length of two inches
and a quarter, forming a kind of sac, aiul from thence for
three inches more along a narrow space. The loral spaces,
circumference of the eyes, and narrow frontal margin are

WHITE SPOONBILL. 50.5

also bare. The plunm^e is moderately full ; the leathers
with a rather large downy plumule ; those of the head and
neck narrow and hlcndcd, of the body ovate and rounded.
On the occiput is a large crest, of numerous linear feathers,
having the webs deflected or di-curvate, and the filaments
disunited ; the longest five inches. The wings are long and
broad, of thirty '[uills ; the primaries broad, tapering, but
rounded ; the outer three sinuate on the inner web ; the
second longest, exceeding the third by a twelfth and a half,
and the first by eight-twelfths ; the secondaries very broad
and rounded. The tail is short, even, or very slightly cmar-
ginate and rounded ; the feathers broad.

The bill is black, transversely variegated Avith bluish ;
the margins dusky toward the end, but about an indi in
length of the expanded ridge or plate yellow ; that of the
lower mandible dusky, as is part of the intercrural membrane.
The iris is red ; the skin of the gular sac reddish- yellow ;
that of the loral space pale yellow behind, dusky before.
The bare part of the tibia, the tarsi, and toes are dusky ; the
claws black. The plumage is white ; hnt there is a large
bufi'-coloured patch on the lower part of the neck and fore
part of the breast, and the feathers of the crest are tinged
with yellow.

Length to end of tail 32 inches ; bill along the ridge 8^,
along the edge of lower mandible, following the curves, 9-^%- ;
wing from flexure 15^ ; tail 5; bare part of tibia 3|- ; tarsus
5-j^ ; first toe 1^, its claw ^ ; second toe 2-j^, its claw -j^ ;
third toe o, its claw 3^ ; fourth toe j, its claw -j^.

Female. — The female is similar to the male, differing
only in haA'ing the crest considerably smaller, and less bufi"
on the breast.

Length to end of tail 30 inches : bill alonor the ridge 7^,
its breadth at the end l-ff; wing from flexure 15; tail 4f ;
tarsus 5^ ; middle toe 3-^^, its claw -^.

An adult female, shot on the 16th of March, 1807,
near Kingsbridge, is thus described by Montagu : — " This
beautiful bird weighed three pounds three ounces ; measured
thirty-one inches to the end of the tail, and thirty-eight

506 PLATALEA LEUCORODIA.

inches to the end of the middle toe ; length of the bill from
the feathers on the forehead seven inches and a quarter ;
breadth of the spoon nearly two inches; the colour dusky,
with transverse undulated ridges of black ; the margin
fonned by a groove running from the nostrils, and sur-
rounding the bill, is punctured ; the point, -which for an
inch is nearly smooth, is of an orange-yellow ; on the inside
of both mandibles near the base are several protuberances
on each side ; from the bill to the eye, and the orbits bare of
feathers, and of an orange-yellow, without any fine down,
described by some authors. The whole plumage is white,
except the lower part of the neck, which is yellowish-buff,
becoming faint behind ; the feathers on the top of the head
increase in length by degrees ; those of the hind head are
from three to five inches long, forming a most beautiful
flowing crest of slender yellowish- white feathers. The trachea
is somewhat compressed, and the cartilaginous rings are
very fine and tender ; at the lower part is a flexure, reflecting
and again returning, two inches or more in length, before it
enters the cavity of the breast."

Variations. — In adult birds differences occui- in size, in
the length of the bill, that of the crest, and in the extent of
yellow on the neck. Frequently the shafts and tips of the
primary quills and primary coverts are more or less black.

Habits. — The White Spoonbill is said by authors to be
extensively distributed over the temperate and warmer parts
of Europe, and to be especially abundant in Holland, where
it is migratory. It resides on the margins of rivers and
estuaries, feeding on small fishes, mollusca, worms, and
insects. Montagu found in the female above described
several half-digested small fishes, and some stickle-backs
entire. According to M. Temminck, it nestles on trees or
bushes, or among the rushes near the margins of the sea or
large lakes, seldom far inland, laying tAvo or three white
eggs, marked with very scattered faint rust-red spots, or
somc^times entirely white.

This beautiful bird is of rare and irregular occurrence in

WHITE SPOONBILL. 507

England. A flock is mentioned by Pennant as having
betaken themselves to marshes near Yarmouth, in April,
1774, Montagu states that it had sometimes been seen on
the coast of South Devon, and that a young individual was
shot in November, 1804, near Kingsbridge, and an adult
female on the 16th of March, 1807, in the same neighbour-
hood. It has been killed in some of the southern counties
of England, but I am not aware of its having been seen in
Scotland.

Young. — When fledged the young have the plumage of
a looser texture, the feathers of the head oblong, those on
the hind part not elongated. The bill is much shorter than
in the adult, and of a dusky greyish colour. The plumage
is white, but the shafts and tips of the primary quills and
their coverts are black. According to M. Temminck, " the
iris is grey, and the bare parts about the head dull white ;"
that on the throat less extended.

508

XVI. LATITOEES. SKULKEES.

The birds of which this order is composed approximate
in some respects to certain species of the Rasorial type.
The Crakes, for example, are not very unlike some Quails
and Partridges ; and the Water-hens, both in form and in
some of their habits, bear an obvious resemblance to the
female of the domestic fowl. Some, however, having an
elongated bill, which suggests an affinity to the Snipes,
might be considered as approximating the group to the
Tentatores. It is difficult, in fact, to determine their natural
position, and, without pretending to have apprehended their
relations, I have thought it expedient to place them here, at
the end of the wading and at the commencement of the
swimming birds. Tliey avIio consider fiimilies as forming
circular series, may be pleased with an arrangement ^^ hich
places them in relation to the Cursores, some of which are
almost Rasorial. But, hoAvever this may be, they all agree
in having the body much compressed, the neck of moderate
length, the head small, oblong, and much compressed.

The bill varies from short to long, from stout to slender ;
is more or less tapering, with rather large nasal sinuses,
and hard, thin-edged tips. The mouth is narrow ; the
a'so])hagus without crop ; the proven triculus thick ; the sto-
mach a very muscular gizzard; the intestine of moderate
length and width ; the coeca rather large.

The nostrils are generally small, as are the eyes, and the
aperture of the ears. The feet generally very large ; the toes
four, the first small, tlie anterior very elongated, compressed,
slender, scutellate, sometimes margined, or even lobcd ; the
claws slender, long, tapering, little arched.

LATITORES. SKULKERS.

509

The plumage is firm ; the wings short or moderate ; the
tail very small.

They iiihahit moist meadows, marshes, ami the sides of
lakes and rivers. Some of them are strictly terrestrial ; hut
hy far the greater number readily betake themselves to tlie
Avater, and many habitually reside upon it. They run with
great speed, and make their way witli wonderful ease among
the rank and dense herbage, where they conceal themselves,
and from which they are with difficulty raised. Their flight
is heavy, but rather quick, and usually not extended, so tluit
they seem unfitted for long migrations, which, however, some
of them perform. They construct bulky nests, which are
placed on the ground, or raised amidst shallow Avater ; and
lay numerous spotted eggs. The young are covered with
stiffish doAvn, and are active from the first. Seeds, insects,
worms, and other small animals, form their food. They are
more numerous in warm climates, but one species or other is
met Avith everywhere, and a few occur in the coldest.

FiQ. 41.

They can scarcely be disposed into families, their mutual
affinity being so obvious that a separation of them into groups
would be merely arbitrary. The genera Aramus and Rallus,
however, have the bill so elongated, and so difierent in form
from the short, thick, strong bill of the other genera, that
they seem to constitute a group apart. At all events, a

510

LATITORES. SKULKERS.

division into the two families of Rallina? and Gallinulinae
would not be productive of the least confusion, or give rise to
any misapprehension of importance. Of the first of these
groups, however, we have only one species in Britain, and,
as the propriety of a division is doubtful, I shall consider all
the birds of this order as forming a single family, of which
the typical genus appears to me to be Parra.

Fio. 42.

Fio. 43.

611

JACANAS AND ALLIED SPECIES.

Considered collectively the birds of this family bear a general
modified resemblance to the Rasores, or rather to the Perdi-
cinae. Our Corn Crake is not very unlike some Partridges,
and our Water-hen has been so named on account of its
manifest similarity to the female of the domestic fowl. The
genera of which it is composed, namely, Aramus, Rallus,
Parra, Crex, Gallinula, Porphyrio, and Fulica, present the
following characters : —

Their body is always much, often extremely compressed ;
their Avings short, convex, and rounded, with a prominent
sometimes horned knob on the head of the metacarpus ; their
feet very large, their toes are excessively elongated; their
neck of moderate length ; their head small, oblong, and much
compressed.

The bill is of moderate length, straight, stout, much com-
pressed ; the upper mandible with its dorsal outline sloping,
convex toward the end, the edges sharp, sHghtly inflected,
with an obscure notch close to the hard rather acute tip,
lower mandible with the angle narrow and long, the dorsal
line ascending and straight, the sides nearly perpendicular,
the nasal groove long, rather wide, and bare, or obliterated.
The gape-line nearly straight.

Both mandibles are concave within, the lower more
deeply ; the palate flat and papillate. The tongue fleshy,
oblong or slender, with a few short papilla; at the base, the
tip thin, obtuse and lacerate. Throat narrow ; oesophagus
of moderate capacity, \\-ithout crop or remarkable dilatation ;
proventriculus oblong, with large oblong glandules ; stomach

512 PAKKIN.E.

a powerful gizzard, like that of a gallinaceous bird, with very
large distiuct muscles, and thick rugous cuticular lining;
intestine long, of moderate widtli ; ca^a rather large, being
about an eighth of tlie length of the intestine ; rectimi wider,
with an elliptical cloaca.

Nostrils direct, pervious, varying from linear to circular,
in the fore and lower part of the nasal groove. Eyes rather
small ; eyelids feathered. External aperture of the ear
roundish and rather small. Feet long and stout ; tibia bare
for a considerable space below ; tarsus large, compressed,
covered anteriorly with curved scutella, posteriorly with two
rows of large scales ; toes very long, slender, free, the first
directed backwards and very small, the outer longer than the
inner, the third longest; claws generally long, straight or
little arched, compressed, acute.

Plumage soft and usually blended, on the head very
short, on the sides long; the feathers oblong, narrow,
rounded. Wings rather short, moderately convex, broad, and
rounded, of about twenty-four quills, the proximal seconda-
ries long and pointed. Tail very short, much rounded, of
twelve narrow, rounded, decurved, weak feathers.

The skeleton of the Parrina? more resembles that of the
Partridges than of any other tribe, although the differences
are great, especially in the form of the feet. The skull is
rather small, oblong, and narrow ; the orbits of moderate
size, incomplete below, their upper margins not elevated as in
the Charadriinec ; the intermaxillary bones linear, as are the
maxillary, an oblong interval being left between them. The
lower jaw is slightly arched, entire, and very thin. The cervical
vertebra? are generally thirteen, the dorsal nine, the lumbar
and sacral twelve, the caudal nine. The ribs are nine, very
slender and compressed, the first incomplete. The sternum
(Figs. 41, 42, 43 J is of a very singular form, being of mode-
rate length, anteriorly of ordinary breadth, but narrowing
backwards so as to end in a point, and from above the middle
sending out two very long lateral processes ; its ridge of
moderate height, anteriorly concave. The coracoid bones
are moderately stout and spreading; the furcula extremely
slender and rather narroAv ; the scapula very slender and

JACANAS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 513

unifoiin. The wings are short ; the cubitus shorter than the
humerus, in which respect these birds differ from those of all
the other f;imilies. The knob on tlie lioad of the metacarpus
generally compressed and rounded, but in the Jacanas
elongated and covered with horn ; the first finger has two
phalanges, the second a large metacarpal bone and two
phalanges, the third a slender metacarpal bone and one
phalanx, both however united to those of the second finger.
The pelvis is extremely narrow ; the sacrum distinct, as is
the pubes, which is linear. The os femoris is of moderate
size ; the tibia long ; the fibula about three-fourths of its
length ; the tarsus rather short ; the toes extremely long
and slendcn- ; the first with a basal bone and two phalanges,
the second Avith three, the third with four, the fourth
with five.

Tlie ParrinsD are generally distributed, some species being
found in every part of the globe, excepting the most frigid
regions. They reside among reeds, sedges, rushes, flags, or
other aquatic plants, or among grass or corn ; are peculiarly
fitted, by the extreme compression of their body, for making
their way among the herbage, and by the great length of
their toes and claws for supporting themselves upon the
stalks or blades of vegetables floating upon the water or
growing out of it. They all float lightly, and, with the
exception of a few species, swim with ease ; some of them
even move about in the exposed parts of rivers, lakes, and
inlets of the sea, proceeding with nearly as much speed as
Ducks or Grebes. They fly heavily, with their legs at first
dangling, and afterwards stretched out behind them. In
open places they run with considerable speed, and in their
ordinary walk advance in a sedate manner, raising their feet
high, and keeping their body nearly horizontal.

Many of them have frontal plates or appendages of a
vascular tissue covered by the ordinary integument or by a
horny cuticle, and becoming more tumid and often more
highly-coloured in the breeding season. The nest is placed
among reeds or other thick herbage, and is of great size,
clumsily constructed of dry plants of various kinds, especially
gramineae and cyperaceae. The eggs are numerous, from

K K

514 PARRINiE.

four to ten or twelve, oval, li(;ht-coloiired, and spotted,
dotted, or speckled all over with dusky. Tlie young are at
first covered witli long, generally black down, and are im-
mediately after birth capable of running about with great
celerity, and even of swimming. They conceal themselves
by squatting, but more frequently by diving and betaking
themselves to the cover of leaves or tufts of gi-ass, Avhere
they can thrust up their heads unperceivcd. The adult
birds have the same habit.

Some of the Parrinap are solitary, others in a great
measure gregarious. Their food is various, consisting of
worms, mollusca, insects, blades of grass, and seeds, espe-
cially of gramina. They use a large quantity of sand and
gTavel, like the gallinaceous birds, to whose digestive organs
theirs are very similar, although they differ in wanting the
crop, and in having the coeca much smaller.

The plumage is changed in autumn. The coloms are
various, and in many species extremely beautiful. The

Fig. 44.

males and females are similar in most cases, and in general
the young differ little from the adult. Their flesh is white,
and affords delicate eating.

The genera may be briefly characterized as follows : —
1. Rallus has the bill most elongated and slender, with the
nasal groove extending to two-tliirds of its length, the ridge
scarcely enlarged at the base. 2. Purra has the bill of

JACANAS AND ALLIED SPECIES.

515

moderate length, deeper tlmu that of Rallus; the ri(l<i;e witli
a loose or free expansion at tlie hase ; the feet very large,
the elaws extremely long and straight, or a little recurvate.

3. In Crex the bill is shorter than the head, tapering, its
ridge slightly
enlarged and
angular at the
base, the nasal
gi-oove long.

4. GalJinula
has the hill a little longer
and stouter tlian Crex, the
nasal groove still large,
the ridge expanded into a
plate covering the fore-
head, toes marginate. 5. Porphyrio has
the bill short and stout, the ridge form-
ing a frontal plate, the nasal groove
obliterated, so that the nostrils, which
are round or elliptical, seem perforated
in the bone, the toes slightly margined.
6. Fulica has the bill similar to that of
Porphyrio, the nasal cavity partially
obliterated, the nostrils linear, the ridge
expanded into a large frontal plate, the
toes broadly margined with scolloped
membranes. Porphyrio is more grani-
vorous than the rest, Rallus more ver-
mivorous, Crex more insectivorous, Gal-
linula more omnivorous, and Fulica, gi'a-
nivorous like Porphyrio, is the most
aquatic ; while Parra, with its exces-
sively elongated toes and claws, is the
best adapted for walking upon the
aquatic plants. For this reason, and
because it is intermediate in structure
between the rest, I have assumed it as the genus which
ought to give its name to this very distinct family, which is
in a manner connected by Rallus with the Scolopacinae, by

Fic. 45,

516 PARKING.

Crex and Gallinula with the Pcrdicina? and Phasianinje,
and by Fuhca with the Colymbina\

In Britain there are no representatives of the genera
Parra and Porpliyrio, which belong especially to wann and
temperate climates.

SYNOPSIS OF THE BRITISH GEXERA AND SPECIES.

GENUS I. RALLUS. KAII,.

Bill long, slender, tapering, very slightly arched, much
compressed ; upper mandible with the ridge a little flat-
tened, rounded but not enlarged at the base, the edges in-
flected near the tip, the nasal groove extending to two-thirds
of its length. Nostrils sub-basal, linear. Toes extremely
compressed, not margined.

1. Rallus aquaticus. IVater Rail. Upper parts oliva-
ceous, streaked witli dusky ; fore-neck and breast purplish-
grey ; sides and abdomen barred with black and white.

GENUS II. (REX. CRAKE.

Bill not longer tlian the head, rather stout, tapering,
much compressed ; upper mandible with the ridge narrow,
very slightly enlarged and angular at the commencement,
the edges slightly inclinate, the nasal groove large. Nostrils
linear-oblong, medial, sub-marginal. Toes much compressed,
not margined.

1. Orcx pratensis. Corn Cralic. Yellowish -brown,
streaked with dusky above, paler beneath, the sides barred
with light red and whitish, the wings light red.

2. (Jrex Porzana. Sjwtfed Crake. Olive-brown, with
dusky streaks and white spots above ; greyish-brown, spotted
with white beneath ; the wings olive-brown.

S. Crex BaiUo)iii. BaiUuri's Crake. Yellowish-brown,
spotted with Avliite, and undulated with black above ; sides
and abdomen barred witli black and white.

JACANAS AND ALLIED Sl'KCIKS. .,17

I. Crex jjuni/Zd. Little Cra/cc. Olivc-biuwii, with a few
white streaks above, bluish-grey beneath ; sides and abdomen
faintly barred with brown and white.

GENUS III. GALLINl'LA. (i ALI-INLLE.

Bill not longer than the head, rather stout, tapering,
nuicli compressed ; upper mandible Avith the ridge narrow,
enlarged at tlie base into a soft tumid oblong plate covering
the forehead, the edges direct, those of the lower mandible
inclinate. Nostrils linear-oblong, medial, sub-marginate ;
the nasal groove large. Toes compressed, marginate.

1. Gallinula Cldoropiis. Grccii-footed Ga/linulc. Head,
neck, and lower parts dark grey ; back and wings deep
olive-brown ; lower tail-coverts white.

GENUS IV. FULICA. COOT.

Bill about the length of the head, strong, compressed ;
upper mandible with the ridge convex, and expanded into a
large plate covering the forehead ; edges direct, as are those
of the lower mandible. Toes margined with a broad mem-
brane contracted at the joints.

1. Fulica atra. Bald Coot. ?Tead and neck greyish-
black ; upper parts dark bluish-grey, lower dark brownish-
grey ; tip of the bill and frontal plate w^hite.

518

RALLUS. RAIL.

The Rails are small birds, varying in size between the
Woodcock and Jack Snipe, and having a slender, extremely
comi)rossed body,, with a rather long neck, and small, oblong,
much compressed head.

Bill longer than the head, slender, firm, straightish, being
slightly arcuate, compressed in its whole length, slightly
tapering ; upper mandible, with its dorsal outline slightly
declinate at the base, straight in the middle, a little declinate
towards the end, the ridge convex, having a slightly enlarged
angular commencement, the sides nearly erect, the edges
sharp, hard, and slightly inflected ; lower mandible, with the
angle extremely long and narroAv, the dorsal outline nearly
straight, the edges slightly inflected, the tips narrow, but
obtuse. Tlie gape-line almost straight ; the nasal groove
extending to two-thirds of the length of the bill. Internal
concavity of the mandibles very deep ; palate extremely
narrow, with a single row of compressed papilla\

Eyes small, eyelids feathered. Nostrils sub-basal, linear,
pervious. Aperture of car small. Feet large ; tibia muscular,
its lower part bare ; tarsus of moderate length, large, com-
pressed, anteriorly covered with broad curved scutella ; toes
very long, slender, much compressed ; the first proportionally
small, the second considerably shorter than the fourth, the
tliird longest. Claws long, slender, tapering, slightly arched,
much compressed.

Plumage blended ; the feathers on the head very short,
those on the forehead with strong bristle points, of the body
oblong and broadly rounded. "NVings short, concave, rounded ;
(luills twcMity-twt) ; ])rimaries weak, broad, rather rounded,
the first much shorter than the second, which is about the

KALLUS. KAIL.

olt>

saino lon":^!!! us the tliird, the fourth a Hltlc shorter, the sixtli
uhout the length of the first. Tail extremely short, arched,
iiiuch rounded, of twelve very weak, rather broad, rounded
feathers.

The Kails are very intimately allied to the Gallinules and
('rakes, from which they differ chiefly in having the hill
more elongated and slender, in which respect, on the other
hand, they approximate to the Sniiics. They inhabit the
seedy and grassy margins of lakes and rivers, where they
habitually conceal themselves. As in their fonn and the
structure of their digestive organs, they manifest an affinity
to the Scolopacinit, on the one hand, and to the Rasores, on
the other, so is their food a mixture of that appropriate to
each of these families, being composed of wonns, mollusca,
small Crustacea, insects, and seeds of reeds and other plants.
They are capable of swimming, and even of diving on
occasion.

All the species are more or less aquatic, and it is among
sedges or reeds that they form their large bulky nest, com-
posed chiefly of glass. The eggs are four or five, or some-
times more. The young run about, swim, and dive Avhile yet
covered with down, and when fledged differ little from the
old birds. The females are similar to the males.

The Rails are sepaiated fiom the Crakes and Gallinules

520 RALLUS. KAIL.

by no precise line, for the principal distinction between these
genera lies merely in the length of the bill, ^vhich in the former
is longer than the head, and in the latter shorter. The Galli-
nules in like manner pass into the genus Porphyrio, and the
latter into Fulica.

Only one species of Rail occurs in Britain.

521

RALLUS AQUATICUS. THE WATER RAIL.

HILCOCK. lU'NNKR. SKIT. SKIDDY-COCK.

Fio. 47.

Rallus aquaticus. Linn. Sys. Nat. I. 262.
Eallus aquations. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 755.
Rail, or "Water-Rail. Mont. Om. Diet.
Rale d'eau. Rallus aquations. Tenim. Man. d'Om. II. 683.
Rallus aquaticus. Water Rail. Flem. Brit, Anim. 98.
Common Rail. Rallus aquaticus. Selb. Illustr. II. 172.
Eallus aquaticus. "Water Rail. Jen. Brit. Vert, An. 217.
Rallus aquaticus. Bonap. Comp. List, 53.

Plumage above olivaceous, streaked with brownish-black ;
fore neck and breast dull greyish-blue ; sides and haunches
barred with hroionish-black and white ; abdome7i pale reddish-
yelloio ; proximal lower tail-coverts white, the rest banded loith
black.

Male. — The Rail is about the size of the Corn Crake, and
nearly of the same form, its body extremely compressed, its
head small and very narrow, its -wings flattened to its sides,
its bill and feet also compressed ; in short, it looks as if it had
been squeezed almost flat, and we cannot choose but admire

522 KALLUS AUIATICUS.

this adaptation of its structure to its habits, nor fail to per-
ceive that were it as broad as a Partrid<ie, it could not thread
its way amoni]: the stiiF reeds with that facility which seems
to us so admirable. The details of its exterior will be found
to agiee with the generic character, so that little remains
here to be said of it. The tarsi have thirteen anterior
scutella, the first toe ten, the second twenty, the third twenty-
six, the fourth also tw(nity-six. The claws are rather long,
slender, ta])ering, compressed, acute, little arched. The
phmiage is blended, but the feathers of the back are a little
stiff, and those of the forehead have their shafts enlarged and
elongated. The wings are short, broad, and rounded, with
twenty-three quills ; the primaries very broad, rounded, and
weak, the first as long as the seventh, seven-tAvelfths of an
inch shorter than the second, which is longest, but scarcely
exceeds the third ; the secondary quills are long, broad, and
rounded, the inner elongated. The tail is short, much
rounded and arched, the feathers narrow and feeble.

The bill is dark brown, a\ ith the edges of the upjjcr and
two-thirds of the lower mandible light red. The iris red.
The feet are light reddish-brown, approaching to flesh-colour ;
the claws greyish-brown. The upper parts are olive brown,
streaked with brownish-black, the middle of each feather
being of the latter colour. The alula, primaries, and outer
secondaries are dusky, tinged Avith olive ; some of the small
feathers on the edge of the wing barred with white and black.
The tail feathers and inner secondaries are like those of the
back. A small portion of the throat is greyish-white ; the
fore ])art of the neck and the breast of a dull greyish-blue ;
the abdomen and inner part of the tibia cream-coloured ; the
sides and haunches, as well as the lower wing-coverts, barred
with white and black ; and the smaller lower tail-coverts
cream-coloured at the end, but barred with black ; the proxi-
mal or large coverts white.

Length to end of tail 11 j inches; extent of wing 16;
wing from flexure 5 ; tail 2^ ; bill along the ridge 1-j^ ; along
the edge of lower mandible 1^ ; tarsus l-j^ ; first toe t%,
its claw -/L ; second toe 1-,V, its claw-j^; third toe 1|^J, its
claw YV» fourth toe l-j^^, its claw ■^.

WATER RAIL. 52.}

Femali;. — The female is similar to the male, but with the
tints paler; llic red oi" the bill less bright, and the legs tinged
with green.

Length to end of tail 11 inches; extent of wings l;j^
inches ; bill along the ridge 1^^.

Variations. — In adult individuals 1 have not observed
any remarkable variations of colour.

Changes of PLUMACiE. — The moult takes place in
autumn, and is completed by the middle of November, but
induces very little change in the colours, which merely become
a little fainter towards the end of summer.

Haiuts. — The Water Rail, although generally distributed,
is nowhere common. Various authors mention its occurrence
in most ])arts of England, and it extends to the very northern-
most parts of Scotland. I have even found it in the island of
Lewis, as well as in Harris, on both occasions in winter. It
frequents moist meadows, the sides of ditches, brooks, or
streams overgi'own with sedges, seeds, and other rank plants,
as well as marshes, especially those abounding in the yellow
iris. Concealed by the vegetation it there pursues its avoca-
tions, never venturing into the open fields or pastures, and
seldom rising on wing even when close pressed, but running
with great celerity, and threading its way through the most
apparently impenetrable thickets of reeds. When forced to
take wing, it flies slowly and rather awkwardly, with its legs
dangling, and seldom proceeds far, but alights and skulks.
Unlike the Corn Crake, wliich greatly resembles it in habits,
it renifiins with us all the year. Its food consists of wonns,
slugs, helices, lymneoe, insects, and seeds of gramineaj.

Its nest, which I have not had the good fortune to meet
with, is described by Montagu as " made of sedge and coarse
grass, amongst the thickest aquatic plants, frequently in
Avillow beds. In such a situation," he continues, " we found
one w ith six eggs of spotless white, and very smooth, rather
larger than those of a Blackbird, the shape a short oval, with
both ends nearly alike." By Temminck, however, the eggs

624 RALLUS AQUATICUS.

are said to be " yellowish, marked with reddish-brown spots ;"
and Mr. John Smith, of Yarmouth, in a notice printed in the
Annals of Natural History, \o\. ii., p. 78, gives the follo^A-inj;
tletailcd account of the nest and eggs : — " The bird had
selected for her nest a thick tuft of long grass, hollow at the
bottom, on the side of the reed ])ond ; the nest about an inch
and a half thick, was composed of withered leaves and rushes ;
it was so covered by the top of the giass, that neither bird,
nest, nor eggs, could be seen ; the entrance to and from the
nest Avas through an aperture of the grass, directly into the
reeds, opposite where any one could stand to see the nest.
The length of the eggs, on an average, Avere one inch and a
half, some near a tenth more, others near a tenth less ; weight,
seven drachms ; colour, light cream, thickly spotted at the
larger ends with bright rusty red, intermixed with simk faint
lilac spots, thinly and finely spotted at the lesser ends with
the same colours, with a blush of pink over the whole egg,
but more tOAvards the lesser ends ; the yolk a bright blood-
red, brighter than any egg I eA^er opened, and I think that the
pink tint of the shell is owing to the redness of the yolk, for
after emptying the eggs it Avas hardly perceptible. On the
20th of June I found another nest in the same reed pond ;
the eggs Avere destroyed ; this nest Avas built among the reeds,
and very near the Avater. On the 10th of July I obtained a
third nest from the same place, of eleven eggs, Avithin tAvo or
three days of hatching ; the nest and situation much like the
last." It is very probable that the Avhite eggs fomid by
Montagu Avere those of the Little Bittern.

Young. — The young ai-e first covered AA-ith black hair-like
doAvn. AVhen fledged they differ little from the adult, and
might be described in the same terms, with the folloAA'ing
slight exceptions : — '' The bill is more dusky, the red of tlie
lower mandible and edges of the upper being less bright, and
the tarsi are of a dull groenish-broAvn tint. The white on the
throat is more extended ; the greyish-blue of tlie fore neck
and breast paler, and most of the feathers narroAvly tipped
with yelloAvish-Avhite ; of Avhich colour are the middle of the
breast, the abdomen, and the inner part of the legs.

525

CREX. CRAKE.

The Crakt'S, Avliicli are intermediate in form between the
Rails and Water-IIens, are generally of small size, the
largest not exceeding- that of the Grey Partridge. Their body
is slender, and very nmcli compressed, the neck of moderate
length, the head oblong, compressed and rather small.

Bill not exceeding the head in length, rather stout, taper-
ing, much compressed ; upper mandibh; with tlie dorsal out-
line declinatc, towards the end convex, the ridge narrow, very
sliglitly enlarged and angular at the commencement, the sides
sloping, towards the end erect and convex, the edges a little
inclinate, the tips somewhat deflected, with a slight notch ;
the nasal groove large ; lower mandible with the angle long
and slender, the dorsal outline very short and ascending, the
sides slo])ing outwards and convex, the edges soft and blunt
at the base, sharp and a little inflected towards the end, the
tip narrow and rather sharp. The gape-line nearly straight.
Upper mandible internally concave, with a central prominent
line ; lower deeply concave.

Eyes rather small ; eyelids feathered, witli a bare crenate
margin. Nostrils linear-oblong, perforated, medial, sub-
marginal. Aperture of ear roundish, of moderate size. Feet
large, tibia muscular, its lower part bare ; tarsus of moderate
length, large, compressed, anteriorly covered Avith broad
curved scutella ; toes very long, slender, compressed, the first
very small, the third longest, the fourth a little longer than
the second ; cLiavs of moderate length, slender, compressed,
acute, slightly arched.

Plumage blended, but m ith the barbs rather stiff", especi-
ally on the upper parts ; the feathers on the head very short.
Wings short, concave, rounded ; quills twenty-four; prima-
ries rather weak, very broad, rounded, the first much shorter

526 CREX. CRAKE.

than the second, which is slightly longer than the third, the
fifth about the length of the first. Tail extremely short,
arched, much rounded, of twelve very weak, narrow, rounded
feathers.

The Crakes inhabit meadows, corn-fields, marshes, and
in general places covered with a rank growth of gramineac
and cyperacea), among which they conceal themselves. They
run with great speed, but seldom rise on wing, unless closely
pursued, v.hen they fly off" in a heavy manner, with their legs
dangling. Their food consists of Avorms, mollusca, insects,
and seeds. Most of them swim and dive Avith ease, but some,
and especially our common species, confine themselves to dry
places.

They nestle on the ground, fonning a shallow cavity, in a
place overshadowed by herbage. The nest is large, and riulely
constructed. The eggs are numerous, oval, light coloured,
dotted, spotted, or freckled with darker.

Four species occur in Britain, but of these three are very
rarely met with, while the other, the Corn Crake, is generally
distributed and familiarlv known.

CREX PRATENSIS. THE CORN CRAKE

LAND KAIL. LAND-HEN. DAKER-HEN. CORN CIIAKKK. DREAUN.

Fig. 48.

Rallus Crex. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 261.

Galliniila Crex. Lath. Ind. Orn. IL 7G6.

Crake Gallinule. Mont. Orn. Diet.

Poule-d'eau de Genet. Gallinula Crex. Temm. Man. d'Om. IL 680.

Ortygomctra Crex. Corn Crake. Flem. Brit. Anim. 98.

Meadow or Corn Crake. Crex pratensis. Selb. lUustr. II. 176.

Crex pratensis. Com Crake. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 217.

Crex pratensis. Bonap. Comp. List, o.3.

Plumose of the upper parts dull yellowish-red, streaked
with hrownish-hlack ; wing -coverts light red ; sides of the head
grey ; lover parts pale reddish ; lower loing-co'certs , azillaries,
and sides, light red, barred with white.

Male. — The Corn Crake, which although it rarely comes
under the observation of unprofessional admirers of nature, is
yet famiharly known by its cry, insomuch that to most people
it is vox et prccterea nihil, claims our especial regard, as of all
the species of the genus which visit us, it is the most easily
studied. Its body is much compressed ; the neck rather long
and slender; the head small and compressed. The bill is
direct, shortish, compressed, and in all respects as described

528 CREX PRATEXSIS.

in the generic character. The tongue is rather short, fleshy,
emarginate and papillate at the base. The (rsophagus is six
inches long, of nearly unifonn diameter ; the stomach round-
ish, compressed, large, an inch and a quarter long ; its muscles
very large ; the intestine twenty-five inches long ; the coeca
three and a quarter.

The tibiae ai*e bare for about five-twelfths of an inch ; the
tarsus has eighteen anterior, and about the same number of
posterior scutclla ; the first toe eight, the second twenty, the
third twenty-six, the fourth twenty-four. The claws are
small, slightly curved, compressed, rather acute.

The plumage is blended, very short on the head, gradually
more elongated on the hind parts; the feathers oblong, curved,
Avith a slender plumule. The wings are rather short, broad,
and rounded ; the second primary longest, the third almost as
long, the first four-twelfths of an inch shorter, and about the
same length as the fifth ; the secondaries fourteen, long,
broad, rounded, the inner much elongated, slender, and like
the scapulars. The tail is very short, much rounded, of
twelve feathers, which arc narrow, rounded, and considerably
induplicate.

The bill is light brown, the lower mandible whitish at the
end. The iris is light hazel. The feet bluish flesh-colour.
The upper parts are light yellowish-brown, each feather
marked with an oblong central spot of brownish-black, and
laterally tinged with grey. The wing-coverts are light red,
some of them imperfectly barred with white. A broad band
of ash-grey passes over and behind the eye and ear, and the
cheeks are tinged with the same. The face, fore part and
sides of the neck, are light yellowish-broAvn, tinged with
gi-ey ; the sides and breast barred Avith light red and white ;
the lower wing-coverts and axillar feathers light red ; the
chin and abdomen brownish-white. Quills and primary
coverts light brown, their outer webs tinged with light red ;
the edge of the wing and outer web of the first alular feather
and first quill, reddish Avhite ; the inner secondaries and tail
feathers like the back.

Length to end of tail 10;| inches ; extent of wings 18 ;
wing from flexiu'e 0 ; tail 2 ; bill along the ridge -j-^ ; along

CORN CRAKE. .029

the edge of lower mandible l-jV ; tarsus l-j^ ; first toe -f^, its
claw -fry ; second toe 1-j^, its claw -,2^ ; third too 1-y'v, its claw
-j3^ ; fourth toe \-^, its claw -,V.

Femat.k. — The female is similar to the male.
Length to end of tail 10^ ; extent of wings 17|.

Variations. — I have not observed any remarkable varia-
tions.

Change of Pix'mage. — The Corn Crake arrives in this
country with its plumage complete, and does not moult before
leaving it.

Habits. — Having made this interesting bird a special
object of study, I hope to be able to present a correct account
of its habits. Let us imagine ourselves strolling over those
flowery pastures that skirt the sandy shores of the Hebrides,
anticipating the rising of the sun, and listening, as we proceed
in the grey twilight, to the cries of the distant gulls, and the
loud crash of the little wavelet, whose fall on the sandy beach
produces, it seems, a louder noise in the perfect calm than
the rushing of the mighty billow would do in a storm. The
bleating cry of the Snipe is heard on the hill-side, and already
has the Lark sprung from its sandy couch to warble its merry
notes over the corn-field. Here let us crouch behind the
turf-wall, in view of that thicket of iris, and watch the Crakes,
which I have often seen resort to it. There already, dimly
seen, one is quietly walking along the gi'assy ridge, lifting high
foot after foot, and sometimes stooping as if to pick up some-
thing. Now it stops, stands in a crouching posture, but on
unbent legs, and commences its curious but monotonous song.
Another is observed threading its way among the short grass
of the adjoining piece of meadow-land. The ruddy streaks
in the east betoken the sun's approach to the horizon.
There along tidemark some dark-coloured bird approaches ; it
perceives us, wheels round, and comes up, announcing itself
by its croak as the Hooded Crow. The Crakes seem to
understand the warning, and immediately betake themselves

L L

530 CREX PRATENSIS.

to the thicket, whence we can easily start them. Yet they
sometimes allow you to come within a yard or two hefore they
rise, and so closely do they sit that I have once or twice seen
a small pointer, which I had trained to hird-nesting, spring
upon and seize one.

The Corn Crake ^•isits us in the latter part of April, or
early in May. It may seem strange that a bird apparently
so ill adapted for continued flight, should yet be capable of
perfomiing the long journeys necessary for its annual ^■isits.
Its ordinary haunts are fields of corn and gi'ass, and in the
less cultivated parts of the country the large patches of flags
and other tall herbaceous plants, which occur in moist places.
It runs with gi'eat celerity, so much so that I think a man
could hardly overtake it, and it seems extremely averse from
flying, for it seldom rises until one gets quite close to it.
When it has started it flies heavily, with considerable speed,
allowing its legs to hang, and soon alights.

In an oat-fleld in Harris I once shot at a Rail that sud-
denly rose among my feet, when, apparently not having been
hit, it flew ofi" in a direct course to the sea, about four hundred
paces distant, where, to my surprise, it alighted and floated
motionless, sitting lightly on the water, like a Coot or Gal-
linule. Soon after a Black-backed Gull coming up, spied it,
and, uttering a loud chuckle of delight, descended with
rapidity, and carried it off" in its bill. In this case I think
the bird was so frighted, although not hurt, that it entirely
lost its presence of mind.

At all times of the day, but more especially in the early
morning, and towards twilight, it utters its singular and
Avell-known cry, resembling the syllables crek, crek, repeated
at short intervals, and often continued for many minutes,
probably a quarter of an hoTir or more, if the bird is not dis-
turbed. It has the reputation of being an expert ventrilo-
quist, and, whether or not it deserves that title, it is certain
that one is \vr\ apt to be mistaken as to the spot in which
the bird is when he listens to its cry, which is at one time
loud, at another low, now seems to indicate a close proximity,
now a remote position, and even appears to come from various
directions. I have heard the Thrush and the Robin so sing,

CORN CUAKK. 531

close at hand, that I imagined them to he far away, and it is
prohable that other birds have the same faculty, which seems
to depend upon the eh)ngation or contraction of the trachea.
When iitterin<; its cry, tlie Corn Crake usually remains still,
standinf:^ Avith its neck considerably drawn in. I have
•watched it so employed through a hole in the wall. But I
have also often seen it walk leisurely alon;j[ at the time. As
to its neck being " stretched perpendicularly upwards," as
alleged by Mr. Selby, I never had the pleasure of observing
it perform in this manner. At the period when the nights
are shortest I have heard it commence its cry so early as one
in the morning.

Although not gaudily attired, the Corn Crake is richly
coloured, and when observed in its wild haunts has an appear-
ance of gi'cat elegance. It moves in a graceful manner, and
when proceeding leisurely, walks with what might be called
sedateness, lifting its feet rather high, jerking up its short
tail, and bending its neck backwards and forwards at every
step, like the Water-Hen. If alarmed, cither while walking,
or while uttering its cry, it instantly ceases, stands still or
crouches, and if it judges it expedient, starts off, throwing its
neck out and its body forward. It is not gregarious at any
period of its residence wdth us, although in favourable situa-
tions, such as extensive meadows, many individuals may
sometimes be found not far from each other. Its food con-
sists of worms, tastaceous mollusca, and insects, especially
Icpidoptera.

Soon after it arrives it begins to form its nest, which is
composed of a few straws, laid in a slight hollow, among
corn, or herbage of any kind. The eggs, which are of an
elongated oval form, and of a light cream-colour, or pale-
grcyish-yellow, patched, spotted, and dotted with umber or
brownish-red, and light-purplish blue or grey, are generally
about ten, or fiom eight to twelve. In colour they bear a
remarkable resemblance to those of the Mistle Thrush. Their
average length is two inches and one-twelfth, their greatest
breadth an inch and four-twelfths. The young are at first
covered with long hair-like down, of a blackish colour, and
leave the nest immediatety after they burst the shell, to follow

532 CREX PRATENSIS.

their mother among the glass or corn. When only a few
days old they run with amazing celerity, and scatter about,
so that wlien one falls in with a flock, it is very difficult to
catch more than one or two of them. On such an occasion
I have seen the old bird come up and run about in great
distress.

Towards the middle of July, the Crake ceases to utter its
cry, and one might suppose that it then leaves the country ;
but the period of its departure is protracted to the beginning
of Scptombev. I have seen young birds in the end of that
month, and instances of their having been shot in winter have
occurred in various parts of the country.

The flesh of this bird is white, and affords delicate eating ;
but this sort of game is not easily obtained in the more highly
cultivated tracts. In the Hebrides and West Highlands,
however, few birds are more common, insomuch that there is
hardly a patch of the yellow iris, or meadow-sweet, of the
nettle, dock, or other tall weed, in which a Crake or two may
not be found. Several individuals of my acquaintance in
Harris have caught thc-m alive, and I once secured one in the
sanic manner, and afterwards allowed it to fly off". Hearing
it utter its notes in an old deserted garden full of weeds and
gi-ass, I went up and peeped through a hole in the lower wall,
when I, of course, had an excellent opportunity of observing
it, as it stood half crouching, with its neck moderately re-
tracted. I then rose up suddenly and leaped upon the Avail,
when the bird instantly squatted. Keeping my eye upon it,
I pulled off my jacket, and crouching, advanced to Avithin a
yard or so, spread out the garment, and flinging it over the
Crake, foUoAved and secured the prize. IJoys in the Hebrides
also sometimes kill it by throAving a stick at it in a horizontal
direction, at Avhich they are rather expert. In those islands
it is not uncommon to see it standing on a turf-Avall or other
eminence, and uttering its cry. Even " Avithin a mile of
Edinburgh," on the stone-Avall of a park not far from Gar-
dener's Crescent, I, one Sunday afternoon, saAv one Avalking
very deliberately along, until, some people coming up, it flcAV
amoiiLi" the Avheat.

The cry of the Crake may be so successfully imitated by

CORN CRAKE. 6:i3

smartly drawing an edged stick along the teeth of a coml), or
a thin piece of hone along another which has hecn notched hy
a saw ; that by this artifice the bird will .sometimes be induced
to come up. Pennant and ^Montagu state that on its first
arrival it is very lean, but before its departure becomes exces-
sively fat. I have never, however, seen any great difference
in tliis respect, birds obtained early in the season being in as
good condition as afterwards. In some parts of Scotland the
Corn Crake ranks with the Red Grouse and Sky Lark, as a
" blessed bird."

Young Fledged. — The young when fully fledged differ
from the old birds chiefly in wanting the bluish-grey markings
on the head and neck. The description of one shot at Auch-
terarder, Perthshire, in August 1831, is as follows : — The bill
is liglit brown ; the iris light brown ; the feet bluish-flesh-
colovu". The upper parts are dull yelloAvish-brown, each
feather with an oblong central spot of brownish-black, the
spots more elongated on the hind parts. The lower surface
is lighter ; the chin and abdomen pale ; the lateral feathers
barred with pale brownish-red, as are the lower tail feathers.
The wing-coverts are bright brownish-red ; the quills and
primary coverts dusky, their outer webs reddish, the inner
secondaries like the back. The lower wing-coverts are of a
delicate red, paler than that of the upper ; the edge of the
wing and the oiiter web of the first alular feather and first
quill reddish- white ; the shafts of the quills brownish-black.

Length to end of tail 10| inches ; extent of wings 17-^ ;
bill -fry ; tarsus 1^ ; middle toe 1^^.

Remarks. — Instances of the occurrence of a solitaiy Corn
Crake in winter have been recorded, and one has been rcjiorted
to me from Elgin. In some parts of Scotland, the people,
observing this bird to be a bad flier, and not seeing either its
arrival or its departure, believe that it hibernates, alleging
that it creeps into holes in turf-walls, and remains there until
spring. Were it really to choose such retreats, the weasels
would leave very few for next season. Some, it is said, have
declared that they have seen them dug out alive ; but I never

oU CREX PRATEXSIS.

met with any of these persons, and had considered the state-
ment made as discredited by all well-informed people, until,
in the Historia Natinalis Orcadensis, published in 1848, I
found the story solemnly repeated : — " There is good reason
for believing that this bird remains the whole year in Orkney.
This idea is supported by the fact that Land-Rails, even in
good condition, as in harvest, are unequal for long flights, and
on their first appearance in summer are so lean, and in such a
weakly state, as to be unable to fly beyond a few yards. More-
over, they have never been observed taking their departure,
as is the case with other birds of passage. Besides, we have
the positive proof, that they have been frequently seen here
during winter. One was observed at Lopness, in December,
181J3, and aiiother in Ronsay, in February, 1847 ; and upon
several occasions, when digging up old turf-dykes, Land-
Rails have been found in them in a torpid condition." A
still more extraordinary " vidgar error " is cherished in Ire-
land, it being there, according to Mr. Thompson, " believed
that the Corn Crake becomes a Water-Hen in winter."

535

CREX PORZANA. THE SPOTTED CRAKE.

SPOTTED RAIL, SPOTTED WATEli-R.UL. SPOTTED WATER-HEN. SKILTY.

Fig. 49.

Rallus Porzana. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 262.

Gallinula Porzana. Lath. Ind. Omith. II. 772.

Spotted Gallmulo. Mont. Ornith. Diet, and Supplt.

Poule-d'cau Marouetto. Gallinula Porzana. Temm. Man. d'Orn. II. G<S8.

Gallinula Porzana. Spotted Gallinulc. Fleni. Brit. Anini. 99.

Spotted Crake. Crex Porzana. Selby, lUustr. Brit. Ornith. II. 179.

Crex Porzana. Spotted Crake. Jenyns, Brit. Ycrt. Anim. 219.

Ortygometra Porzana. Bonap. Comp. List, 53.

Length nine inches; hill along the ridge nine-twelfths ;
upper parts olivc-hroitm, ivith oblong black spots and numerous
white species margined with black; those on the scapulars
beiiig linear and longitudinal, on the inner secondaries trans-
verse; a greyish-blue band dotted with white over the eye;
the fore part and sides of the neck greyish-olive, spotted with
dull tchite; the sides of the body olivaceous, barred icith white
a?id black; the axillar and lower wing-coverts barred icith
black and white; the loicer tail-covei'ts pale buff.

Male. — This species differs in form from the last in no
appreciable degree, uor is its style of colouring so dissimilar

536 CREX PORZ.\NA.

as to justify any attempt to separate the t^^ o species gene-
rically. It is, however, much inferior in size, and somewhat
more skMider. Its hody is deep and extremely compressed ;
the neck of moderate length ; the head oblong, much com-
pressed, and small. The hill is a third shorter than the
head, straight, rather stout, much compressed, tapering.
The upper mandible has the dorsal line declinate and straight
for half its length, then convexly declinate ; the nasal sinus
large, extending to half its length ; the ridge narrow and
convex, a little enlarged and angular at the base ; the edges
slightly inclinate, the tip narrow, but bluntish. The lower
mandible has the intercrural space rather long and very
narrow, the dorsal line ascending and straight, the sides
erect, the edges inclinate, the tip narrow ; the gape-line
nearly straight, toward the end a little decurved.

The nostrils are linear, sub-basal, tliree-twelfths long ;
the eyes small. The legs are of moderate length, rather
stout ; the tibia bare for nearly five-twelfths of an inch ; the
tarsus compressed, with twelve very broad anterior and more
numerous posterior scutella ; the hind toe with eight, the
inner twenty, the third twenty-five, the outer twenty-eight
scutella. The claws are rather small, little curved, extremely
compressed, acute.

The plumage is blended, very short on the head, gra-
dually more elongated on the hind parts ; the feathers oblong,
broadly rounded. The wings are rather short, broad, and
rounded ; the primaries broad and rounded, the second
longest, the first almost half-an-inch shorter ; the secondaries
twenty-three ; the inner much elongated and pointed, one of
them being only five-twelfths shorter than the longest pri-
mary when the wing is closed. There is a distinct rudi-
mentary hare blunt knob or spur at the flexure. The tail is
very short, mucli rounded, of twelve narrow, rounded, and
considerably induplicate feathers.

The bill is brownish-yellow, brighter at the base. The
iris reddish-brown. The feet yellowish-gTcen. The upper
part of the head, the hind-neck, back, and scapulars are
olive-brown, streaked with black, each feather having an
oblong medial patch of the latter colour ; the feathers of the

SPOTTED CRAKE. .037

iipc'k witli inargiual roundish, the scapulars -with linear, the
feathers of the hind part of the back with very small ohlong
white markings. The wings are of a lighter olive-brown,
their margin and the outer vd'^c of the first (piill white ;
some of the secondary and smaller coverts with small spots,
white in the middle, black at each end ; the inner secon-
daries and coverts obli(|uely barred with white, their inner
webs yellowish-olive and unspotted. The tail-feathers black,
broadly margined with olive. Over the eye is a broad
bluish-grey band, dotted with white. The forehead, throat,
and cheeks bluish-grey, the latter speckled with black. The
fore part and sides of the neck, with the anterior portion of
the breast, pale greyish-olive spotted with Avhitc ; the sides
of the body olivaceous, barred Avith white and black; the
middle of the breast and the abdomen greyish-white ; the
lower tail-coverts buff-coloured ; the axillar feathers and
lower wing-coverts barred with black and white.

Length to end of tail 9:^^ inches ; extent of wings 15|- ;
wing from flexure 4-^ ; tail 2^ ; bill along the ridge -f^,
along the edge of lower mandible \^ ; tarsus l-j^^- ; hind toe
-j^, its claw-j^jj second toe \^, its claw -j32- ; third toe 1^^,
its claw -^; fourth toe 1, its claw -53^.

Female. — The female is similar to the male.

Habits. — The Spotted Gallinule differs materially from
the Crake in its habits, as it resides in marshes and by the
margins of pools, lakes, and rivers overgrown with rank
■ herbage, among which it searches for its food, betaking itself
to the water on occasion, and swimming with ease. It feeds
on worms, insects, and moUusca ; is seldom to be seen, as it
runs and skulks, like all the other species, and is with diffi-
culty put up. In its mode of flight it resembles the Corn
Crake, from which it is not easily distinguishable on wing. It
is not quite certain that it does not reside with us all the year
round, although it is generally understood to be migTatory.
Montagu says he has met with it in Devonshire as early as
the 14th of March, and as late as the 23rd of October ; and
Mr. Jenyns states that it is certainly to be met with fiom

538 CREX PORZANA.

early in March to the middle of November. Although gene-
rally dispersed in England, it is nowhere numerous ; and in
Scotland is of rare occurrence. I have, however, seen many
specimens obtained in Forfarshire, in the neighbourhood of
Aberdeen, and in various parts of that county, as well as in
Banffshire. Dr. Farquharson mentions it as breeding in
Alford. The nest is said to be of very large size, formed of
decayed aquatic plants, and often surrounded by water,
being placed among the reeds. The eggs, from seven to ten,
are ovato-oblong, an inch and a fourth in length, from ten
and a half to eleven-twelfths in breadth, pale reddish-grey,
spotted with umber or deep reddish-brown and brownish-
grey. The young, at first covered with black down, are
said to betake themselves at once to the water. I have
never met with this species, however, and therefore am very
reluctantly obliged to be content with a second-hand account
of its manners. Its flesh, according to Mr. Selby, is sweet
and well-flavoured, like that of the Corn Crake ; and " in
autumn it becomes loaded with fat, a layer of nearly a
quarter of an inch in thickness covering the whole surface
of its body.

Young. — When fledged, the young diff*er from the adult
only in having the tints duller, the cheeks and throat
yellowish-white, the former faintly marked with brown, the
abdomen with more greyish-white, the bill of a lighter tint,
and the legs paler.

539

CREX 13AILL0NII. BAILLON'S CRAKE.

Poule-d'eau Baillon. Gallinula 15ailloiiii. Tcnnii. Man. d'Omith. II. G92.
Crex Baillouii. Jard. and Sclby, Illustr. of Ornith. part I. fol. 15.
liaillon's Crake. Crex Baillouii. Sulby. lUii.str. Brit. Oniith. II. 182,
Crex Baillonii. Baillou's Crake. Jen. Brit. Vert. Aniin. 219.
Ostygometra Bailloni. Bonap. Comp. List, 53.

Wings ending at the middle of the tail; hill dark green ;
feet jiesh-colour ; a great number of white spots on the hack
and icings. Female scarcely differing from the male.

Having neglected the opportunities which I have had of
taking- descriptions from skins or stuffed specimens of the
two species of tliis genus that remain to he described, and
not having any in my own collection, with the exception of
a single specimen of Crex Baillonii from India, or being in
a place well adapted for this kind of research, I must confine
my account of them to a translation of that given by M.
Temminck, and a fcAv additional observations.

Male. — " Throat, a streak over each eye, sides of the
neck, breast, and belly bluish-grey, shaded on the sides of
the body with olivaceous, these parts marked w ith a multi-
tude of white spots ; upper parts of a light olivaceous red,
varied on the top of the head with black streaks ; on the
back and on all the wing-coverts are numerous white spots
of various forms, and which are all surrounded Avith deep
black ; flanks, abdomen, and lower tail-coverts transversely
marked with broad bands of deep black and narrow bands of
pure white ; bill very dark green ; iris reddish ; feet flesh-
colour. Length 6 inches 7 or 8 lines.

Female. — "The female differs from the male only in
having less bright and less pure tints.

540 CREX BAILLOXII.

Young. — " The voun<j resemble the adults in the colour
of their upper parts ; but their throat and the middle of the
belly are white, undulated with grey and olivaceous zigzag
lines ; tlie flanks are olivaceous, marked with numerous
spots of pure white ; the bill is of a greenish-brown.

IIahitatiox. — " It inhabits the same places as the Little
Gallinule, but almost always in marshy lagoons; and is
extensively distributed in the eastern parts, but is more
common toward the south, in the neighbourhood of Genoa.
It is also found in several provinces of France, and in the
whole of Italy.

Food. — " Insects, small slugs, aquatic plants, and their
seeds.

Propagation. — " It always nestles as near as possible to
water, without ever frequenting the fields ; and lays seven
or eight eggs, of the shape of olives, and of an olivaceous-
brown colour."

It has several times been met with in England : near
Cambridge, liecclcs, and Derby ; at Dilham and IJarton, in
Norfolk ; and at Weston-super-Mare, on the Bristol Channel,
as related with details by jNIr. Yarrell. I am not aware of
its having been found in Scotland. A single instance of its
occurrence in Ireland, in a bog at Clay Castle, near Youghal,
is mentioned by Mr. Thompson.

541

CREX PUSILLA. THE LITTLE CRAKE.

Rallus pusillus. Lath. Ind. Ornith. II. 761.

Little Gallinulo. Galliimla mmuta. Mont. Ornith. Diet. Supplt.

Olivaceous GaUinule. Galliuula Foljambei. Mont. Ornith. Diet. App. to

Supplt.
Poulc-d'cau poussin. Gallinula pusilla. Tomm. Man. d'Oniith. II. 690.
Gallinula pusilla. Little Ciakc. Sclby, Illustr. Brit. Ornith. II. 185.
Crex pusilla. Little Crake. Jen. Brit. Vert. Anim. 219.
Ortygometra pusilla. Bonap. Comp. List. 53.

" Wings extending to the end of the tail; bill and feet of
a beautiful light green; feathers of the middle of the back
marked icith a c erg few small white spots. Female differing
mtich from the male.

INIale. — " Throat, a streak over each eye, breast, and
belly bluish-grey, Avithout spots; upper parts olivaceous-
grey, but all the feathers blackish in the middle ; on the
fore part of the back a large black S])ace varied with, some
•white marks, -which are very thinly distributed; abdomen
and flanks marked with rather indistinct Avhite and brown
bands ; lower tail-coverts black, barred with white ; bill of a
beautiful green, reddish at the base ; feet bluish-grey, with-
out any spot; iris red. Length 6 inches 9 lines, rarely
7 inches.

Female. — " The female has the eye-streaks and the sides
of the head of a light grey ; throat whitish ; fore part of the
neck, breast, and belly reddish-grey ; thighs and abdomen
grey ; lower tail-coverts tipped with Avhite ; upper parts
reddish-brown ; the large blackish space of the fore part of
the back variegated with a small number of wliite spots ;
wing-coverts olivaceous-grey.

542 CREX PUSILLA.

YoiNG. — " The youno; have tlic tints paler ; nearly the
■uhole of the throat is whitish ; the white marks of the fore
part of the back are in very small number, and the feathers
of the flanks are brown Avitli white bands.

Habitation. — " It inhabits the same places as the last
species, bixt more habitually marshes ; often visits the fields,
where it is met Avith rather commonly ; lives in great num-
bers in the eastern countries of Europe ; pretty common in
Germany ; rare in the provinces of the north of France ;
more abundant towards the south ; common in Italy ; acci-
dentally in Holland.

Food. — " Insects, small slugs, aquatic plants, and theii
seeds.

Propagation. — " Constructs its nest in the marshes,
upon broken canes, rushes, and water plants ; lays seven or
eight yellowish eggs, sprinkled with longitudinal olivaceous
spots."

Montagu, who, for his time, added more to the know-
lodge of British birds than, I think, any of the several
estimable ornithologists who succeeded him, was the first to
make known an instance of the occurrence of this bird in
England. The specimen alluded to was shot near Ash-
burton, in Devonshire, in 1809, and was sent to him by
Mr. Tucker. He considered it as appearing " not only to be
new as British, but to bo a nondescript species, and named
it the Little Gallinule, Gallinula niinuta." In the Appendix
to the Supplement, he describes another individual, " dis-
covered by ;Mr. Foljambe in a poulterer's shop, early in
May, 1812, together with some other valuable birds, which
had recently been received from the fens in Norfolk." He
considered it also a now species, and named it " Olivaceous
Gallin\ile, Gallinula Foljambei." It is thus described : —
" The length is seven inches and a half; breadth ten inches
and a half. The bill is nearly three quarters of an inch
long, of a greenish-yellow colour, the base red ; irides and

LITTLE CRAKE. 543

orbits light red, inclining to orange ; checks and forehead
dusky cinereous; sides of the neck and throat ])ale cinereous;
breast, belly, aiul thighs plain darkx-inereous or slate-colour,
like the AVater-Rail, without spots or markings of any kind ;
the back of the head deep olive-brown ; hind-neck lighter,
being of a yellowish-olive ; the feathers of the back have a
mixture of olive-brown and dusky black, the margins being
mostly of the foiTner colour, with paler edges ; scapulars
dusky black, with broad olive margins ; coverts of the wings
olive-brown ; quills dusky, the outer webs edged with olive ;
rump and upper coverts of the tail very dark olive-brown,
with a mixture of dusky black ; the feathers of the tail are
of a deep dusky brown, the shafts paler and the lateral ones
margined with olive-yellow ; vent and under coverts of the
tail dusky cinereous, some of the feathers deeply margined
with sullied white ; sides behind the thighs olive, slightly
margined as the last ; the legs, toes, and knees olive."

About the same time, as stated by Montagu, Mr. Plasted,
of Chelsea, procured another that was shot there on the
banks of the Thames. Several other individuals have since
been obtained in various parts of England ; near Arkrigg, in
Yorkshire ; near Cambridge, Manchester, Yarmouth, Shore-
ham, and Scarborough. It does not appear to have been
met with in Scotland or Ireland.

o44

GALLINULA. GALLINULE.

The Galliirales differ in no ver)- essential respect from the
Crakes, as ■will be seen on comparing two species of these
respective genera, or the generic characters here given. They
are of moderate size, not exceeding that of a domestic fowl.
Their body is slender and much compressed, the neck of
moderate length, the head oblong, compressed, and rather
small.

Bill not exceeding the head in length, rather stout, taper-
ing, much compressed ; upper mandible with the dorsal out-
line slightly declinate, towards the end convex, the ridge
narrow, considerably enlarged at the base, and forming a soft
tumid oblong plate, which varies in extent, sometimes extend-
ing to the crown of the head, the sides sloping, towards the
end erect and convex, the edges direct, the tip somewhat
deflected, with a very slight notch, the nasal gi'oove large ;
lower mandible Avitli the angle long, and very narrow^, the
dorsal outline very short and ascending, the sides nearly erect,
the edges soft and blunt at the base, sharp and a little in-
flected towards the end, the tip narrow and rather sharp.
The gape-line nearly straight.

Both mandibles internally concave, the lower more deeply
so. Palate flattish, papillate, as is the nasal slit. Tongue
fleshy, oblong, nearly flat above, having a few short papilla?
behind, the tip thin, rounded, and lacerated. Aperture of
glottis smooth, papillate beliind. (Esophagus uniform in
diameter ; proventricular glands oblong. Stomach large, its
muscles of gi'eat size, and distinct, its inner coat with very
numerous and small ru^ae. Intestine disposed in numerous
dose parallel folds, very long ; the ca-ca large, cylindrical,
with a slender curved tip.

Eyes rather small, eyelids with the margin bare. Nostrils

GALLLNULA. GALLINULE.

54o

linear-oblong, perforated, medial, submarginal. Aperture of
ear roundisli, rather small. Feet large ; tibia muscular, its
lower part bare ; tarsus of moderate lengtli, large, compressed,
anteriorly covered with broad curved scutella, posteriorly
Avith two rows of scutella ; toes very long, slender, com-
pressed, anteriorly covered with numerous scutella, l)cncath
flattened and distinctly marginate ; the first very small, the
third longest, the fourth a little longer than the second ; claws
long, slender, slightly arched, compressed, acute.

Plumage blended, soft, glossy above ; on the head very
short, gradually elongated backwards, on the sides long, on
the tibiie short ; the feathers narrow, oblong, with a longish,
narrow plumule. Wings short, concave, rounded ; quills
twenty-two ; primaries rather weak, very broad, rounded, the
first considerably shorter than the second, which is the
longest, being slightly longer than the third ; the fifth about

Fig. 50.

the length of the first. Tail very short, arched, much rounded,
of twelve Aveak, narrow, rounded feathers.

The Gallinules, so named from their resemblance to the
domestic hen, differ from the Crakes chiefly in having the
base of the ridge of their upper mandible expanded into an
oblong plate, which covers a greater or less extent of the
forehead ; and in the flattened soles of their toes, which are
expanded into two narrow margins. They difier from the
genus Porphyrio in a very slight degree, it having the bill
mucli liigher, the nostrils roundish, and the toes not laterally
margined, but with a single projecting margin. But these
differences are very slight, and the so-called genera Por-

M M

346

GALLINULA. GALLINULE.

phyrio, Ortygometra, and Gallinula, might with great pro-
priety be considered as sections of one and the same genns.

The species of this genus inliabit meadows, marshes, and
especially swampy places on the edges of rivers, lakes, or the
inlets of the sea, covered with reeds, sedges, and other strong
licrbage. They run with great s})eed, seldom rise on wing,
unless closely pursued, when they fly off in a hea^7^ manner,
with their legs at first dangling. Their food consists of
worms, mollusca, insects, and seeds, chiefly of gramina, in
search of which they make excursions into the neighbouring
pastures. They swim and dive with rase, and when in dan-
ger, conceal themselves by diving and rising under a bank,
or merely projecting their head under cover of the herbage.

They nestle on the ground among th(> reeds, or on a tuft
of dry ground or a decayed tree, forming a very bulky nest of
reeds, straws, or similar materials. The eggs are numerous,
five or more, light coloured, dotted, spotted, or freckled with
darker.

Only one species occurs in ]iritaiu.

Fig. 51.

547

GALLINULA CTILOROPUS. THE GREEX-FOOTED
GALLLNULE, OR WATER-HEN.

MOOR-HEN. MARSH-HEN. STANIC-HEN.

Fig. 52.

Fidica Chloropus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 258. Adult.

Fulica fusca. Linn. Syst Nat. I. 257. Young.

Gallinxila Chloropus. Lath. Ind. Om. IL 770. Adult.

Gallinula fusca. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 771. Young.

Poulc d'Eau ordinaire. Gallinula Chloropus. Temni. Mann. d'Om.

Gallinula Chloropus, Common Gallinule, or "Water Hen. Flem.

Anim. 99.
Common Gallinule. Gallinula Chloropus. Selb. Illustr. II. 188.
Gallinula Chloropus, Common Gallinule. Jen. Brit. Vert., An. 220.
Gallinula Chloropus, Bonap. List. 53.

Brit.

Plumage of the heady neck, and lower parts dark grey, of
the hack and wings deep olive-brown ; edge of the wing and
lower tail-covert ichite. Young similar, hut with the feathers
of the lower part edged with ichite.

Male. — The Green-footed Gallinule, when seen running
along the banks of a stream or pool, invariably calls to mind

548 GALLINULA CHLOROPUS.

the idea of a young bird of the domestic fowl, its form and
attitudes being extremely similar. The body, although much
compressed, is rather full anteriorly ; but the proportions, as
well as the plmnagc, being such as have been described in
the generic character, it is unnecessary here to enter into
details respecting them, farther than to state a few parti-
culars which have been purposely omitted. The bill is about
the same length as the head; the frontal plate oblong,
rounded above, extending nearly as far as over the anterior
edge of the eye. Tarsus with fifteen anterior scutolla ; first
toe with eleven, second with twenty-four, third toe with
thirty-eight, fourth with thirty-four. The claws are long,
sliglitly arched tapering, much compressed, and, until worn,
acute. The plumage is very soft and blended, on the lower
part dull, on the back glossy. The wings short, of twenty-
Uvo quills ; the third quill longest, the second scarcely
shorter, the fourth nearly as long as the third, the first as
long as the sixth, and nine- twelfths shorter than the second.
The tail is very short, much rounded, of twelve arched,
rounded feathers.

In the end of autumn, when the moult has been com-
pleted, the bill is greenish-yellow beyond the nostrils, the
basal part and frontal plate crimson red, the latter somewhat
paler. The iris, which is very narrow, seems red at a dis-
tance, but is composed of three rings, the outer hazel, the
middle dusky, the inner bright red. The feet are dull green,
with a ring of bright red above the tibio-tarsal joint ; the
claws dusky, the head, the neck, and the lower parts in general,
are of a deep, dark, gi-eyish blue, the abdomen tinged Avith
pale grey, and the uppermost hypochondrial feathers, Avhicli
are very long, have a longitudinal band of white on the outer
web. The back and smaller wing-coverts are of a deep olive
brown. The quills, alula, and primary coverts are dark
brown, the secondary coverts the same, tinged with olive
brown, the first ([uill and first alular feather with the outer
edge Avhite, of which colour also is the edge of the wing. The
tail is blackish-brown ; the proximal under tail-coverts white,
and a tuft of feathers under the middle of the latter deep black.

The ccsophagus is seven inches long, its average diameter

GREEN-FOOTED WATER-HEN, o4!>

half an iiicli. The proventricuhir ghinds are oblung, compa-
ratively few, as in a gallinaceous bird, and fanning a belt an
inch in breadth. The stomach is a ])o\verful gizzard, o1)li(|uely
situated, an inch and ten and a half twelfths Ijroad, an inch and
a half'iong, the right lateral muscle ten twelfths and a half,
the left nine twelfths thick; the cuticular lining thick, with
longitudinal rugnc. The intestine is thirty-one inches long,
varying in diameter from three-twelfths to a twelfth and a half.
Therectum is two inches and three quarters long; and the ca'ca
arc four inches and a lialf in length, tlieir greatest diameter
four and a half twelfths, half an inch of their extremity in-
curved. There is considerable analogy in the digestive organs
to those of the Rasores. The stomach is precisely similar,
the rectum is of the same form, the coeca approximate ; but
there is no crop, and the intestine is more slender. In an
individual killed at Duddingston Loch, in April 1835, the
dimensions of the digestive orjj^ans were somewhat different,
oesophagus six and a half inches long; stomach an inch and
three quarters in diameter ; intestine forty-one inches long ;
the cocca six inches in length, and coming off at the distance
of four inches from the extremity.

The flesh is white in autumn and the beginning of winter,
when there is a layer of fat under the skin. It affords good
eating, not much inferior to that of the partridge.

The frontal plate is of a brighter red than the bill, yellow-
ish at its upper margin. It is larger in the male than in the
female. Its surface is smooth and glossy, being formed of
cuticle continuous with that of the bill. The external
pellicle is colourless, the inner layers tinged Avith red ; but
the principal seat of the colour, both of this plate and of tlie
bill, is the rete mucosum, which is of dense texture. Beneath
it is a pad of dense cellular tissue, of which the minute in-
terstices are filled with adipose matter. This part has the
appearance of being glandular, and resembles the substance of
the uropygial gland, but has no duct, and is certainly con-
densed adipose tissue, the oil obtained from it being very
pure. The colour of the frontal plate is not, then, as some
assert, caused by its vascular texture, although it becomes
brighter in spring than at any other season.

560 GALLINULA CHLOROPUS.

Length to end of tail, Voh inches, extent of Avings, 22^,
wing, from flexure, 7 ; tail 3^ ; bill, along the ridge, including
the frontal plate, If, along the edge of lower mandible, l^;
bare part of tibia, 4^ ; tarsus, 2 ; first toe, \Jt, its claw, -^ ;
second toe, l-f^, its claw, yV ; third toe, Ji-fV, its claw, -^ :
fourth toe, l\h, its claw, -f^.

Female. — The female differs slightly in size, being some-
what smaller, but the difference in the colours of the plumage
is inconsiderable, the head, neck, and especially the sides,
being merely a little paler, the black beneath the tail less
deep, and the abdomen with rather more white. The frontal
plate is much smaller.

Length to end of tail, 12^ inches ; extent of wings, 20^ ;
bill and frontal plate, H ; tarsus, 2 ; middle toe and claw, 2| ;
hind toe and claw, l-fj ; wing, from flexure, 7 ; tail, 2^.

Variations. — In size there is considerable difference be-
tween individuals, some being twelve inches in length, while
others are fourteen. In many the middle toe has its claw
obli(piely truncate, while in some it is unworn and very long ;
and 1 have seen it worn on one foot and entire on the other,
in the same individual. In birds several years old, the tints
are deeper and purer, and in younger individuals the deep,
greyish-blue parts are more or less tinged with grey, and
there is more white on the abdomen.

Changes. — As the plumage becomes old, its colours fade
a little, but the change produced by the weather is small.
The moult is completed by the beginning of November. In
spring, the frontal plate assumes a brighter tint, approaching
to vermilion.

Hauits. — The Water-Hen is found in all parts of Scotland
and England that are adapted to its nature. It frequents
marshy places, pools, lakes, still streams, mill-dams, and even
ditches, where it searches for food chiefly among the reeds
and other a([uatic plants along the shores. It swims with
great ease and elegance, silting lightly on the water, with its

GREEN-FOOTED WATER-HEN. 551

neck erect, and its tail obliquely raised. It dives witli equal
facility, and in travelling among the reeds, sedges, and other
aquatic plants, makes its way with surprising ease, owing to
the compression of its body, and its elongated toes. When
surprised in a narrow stream or ditch, it usually dives, and
conceals itself among the })lants or beneath the banks, often
remaining for a long time submersed, with nothing but the
bill above the water. I have seen it thus betake it.self to the
margin, when, on my going up to the spot, thinking the motion
among the grass had been produced by a water rat, it sprung
up from under the water, and ilew away. On other occa-
sions I have traced it under the overhanging earth, in a hole
among the stones, and behind a waterfall. When disturbed
in a large pool or lake, it either swims out to the open water,
or betakes itself to the reeds or sedges, among Mhich it re-
mains concealed until the danger is over ; and from its hiding-
place it is not easily scared, for as its power of flight is not of
a high order, it prefers the asylum of the water.

In swinmiing, it moves its head backward and forward,
as a pigeon does when walking, a circumstance Avhich be-
comes remarkable in this and some other birds, when com-
pared with the Swan, Geese, and Ducks, which keep the
head steady while advancing on the water. In general, it is
not so ready on being disturbed to betake itself to the open
Avater as the Coot, but prefers skulking along the shores.
When a shot is fired at one, and has not hit, it often flies ofl",
but often also keeps steadily swimming on. Being one even-
ing with a friend at Seaton Marsh, on the Don, near Aber-
deen, I started a Water-hen, and fired at it, on which it
aUghted at a very short distance, and concealed itself. ^Nly
companion, however, having discovered it, took it up, when we
could see no injury inflicted on it. We carried it home, and
having satisfied ourselves with observing its form and atti-
tudes, carried it back next day, and let it loose, when it flew
directly off" to a grrat distance. It had evidently been para-
lyzed by terror, as was the case with the Corn Crake al-
ready mentioned. I have seen another, when swimming
right down the wind, after a shot had been fired near it, raise
up the hind uart of its body, and spread out its tail like a fan,

552 GALLINLLA CHLOROPUS.

■which tliiis answered tlie purpose of a sail, and would have
carried the bird on at a good rate, even if it had not made
use of its oars.

It often perches on the stumps or trunks of willows grow-
ing in the water or hanging over it, or rests on a tuft of turf,
wliore it mav be seen standing on one foot, with its neck
drawn in. Its ordinary position when reposing, resembles
that of the Heron, the body being oblique, the legs straight,
the head retracted ; and in walking, it raises its feet high,
probably to prevent its long toes from being entangled. Early
in the morning, often even at any time of the day, if it sus-
pects no danger, it makes excursions into the fields or pas-
tures adjoining its watery retreat, and walks along precisely
witli the air of a domestic fowl, searching for food. It is ex-
tremely vigilant when on shore, and on the least alarm, runs
off witli great speed, throwing its body forward, and stretch-
ing out its neck. Its flight is hea\^', straight, performed by
regular flappings, and very similar to that of the Corn Crake.
When flying uver a short space, it allows its legs to dangle,
and Avlien ahghting on the water, enters it at a very low
angle, splashing it up with its wings, as is the manner of the
Coot and most species of the Duck tribe. In rising, also, it
moves a considerable way before fairly quitting the water,
which it strikes with its wings like the Gannet and most
aquatic birds.

It is curious to observe with what facility the Water-hen
makes its escape, in circumstances in which one might at first
suppose it impossible for it to get off in security. Thus you
may come upon one feeding in a narrow ditch filled with
water. It instantly dives or flies off a short way, and when
you run up to the place where it has just alighted, and think
you are sure of it, you find no traces of its existence. Watch
as long as you please, no bird makes its appearance ; it has
sunk, and concealed itself somewhere along the margin, and
there it will remain, with nothing but its bill above the sur-
face, until you have departed, for it would require an eye
sbapcr than tliat of a lynx to discover it. Altliough, Avhen
accustomed to the molestation of man, it is very vigilant,
easily alarmed, and always prc])arcd for flight, it is less wary

GREEN-FOOTED WATER-HEN. oo3

in remote and nnfrcqnontod places. In some of the rushy
lakes of the Island of Harris and North Uist, I have found it
easier to get within shooting distance than in the mill-dams
and streams of the lower districts of Scotland, where, should
it observe you, even at a great distance, it is sure to be off in-
stantly, and by the time you get to the place, it has concealed
itself.

From the middle of April to the beginning of May, when
vegetation has made some progress, but in the northern and
more exposed parts of the country not until the middle of
that month, the Water-hen commences the construction of its
nest, which it places in the midst of a tuft of rushes or sedges,
or fixes among reeds, or builds on a sedgy spot close to the
water, or even sometimes on the trunk of a decayed or fallen
willow. It is bulky, and composed of blades of reeds, gi-asses,
fragments of decayed rushes or flags, and other aquatic plants.
The eggs, Avhich sometimes amount to eight or even ten, vary
in forai from regular ovate to nearly elliptical, and have a
pale, dull, brownish-grey, or greyish-yellow^ ground, with
irregularly dispersed spots and dots of a deep brow^l colour,
varying in size from the smallest perceptible by the human
eye, to a diameter of nearly a quarter of an inch. Their
average length is an inch and three quarters, their breadth
an inch and a quarter. The young, w^hich are at first covered
with long, stiffish black down, leave the nest soon after they
are hatched, and follow their mother. The sight of a flock is
interesting, especially if you come suddenly upon it, for then
the young scatter about in all directions, dive and conceal
themselves, the old bird meanwhile lingering, and displaying
the greatest anxiety, until her brood is safe, when she, too,
dives, and is no more to be seen.

To these observations of my own I have the pleasure of
adding the following, kindly supplied by Mr. Harley, of
Leicester : — " The Water-hen is a truly British bird, widely
distributed and generally well known. Although in many
parts of this island it bears the name of Moor-hen only, yet
that appellation is not strictly true, as we may find it far
away from the moor or marsh or sedgy swamp, the haunt of
the Bittern, Curlew, and Snipe, affecting alike the expanded

554 GALLINULA CHLOROPUS.

lake, the glassy pool, and tlie tiowing- river, even clown to its
estuar}', where its Avaters mingle with the mighty ocean, or
high up at its rise, wlicrc it wells and ripjdes from the foot
of the heath-clad hill or lichen-crowned rock. Rather
domestic in its habits for a free denizen of natnre, this bird
becomes easy of approach where its species is protected and
its haunts undisturbed. We may then find it feeding in
company with the domestic Duck, and sometimes even with
poultry. It is rather an early breeder, setting about the
work of nidification towards the close of April or the begin-
ning of May, and has two if not three broods in the year.
Its nest is a rude structure, composed externally of rushes
and flags, and internally lined with fine grass or bents, and
may very generally be found placed on a hassock or osier
stump, or amongst the roots of reeds or carices, in the imme-
diate vicinity of water. But, although these spots are very
generally chosen by this bird for nestling in, yet I have
found its nest sometimes affixed to the stximp or horizontal
bough of the white Avillow, about two or three feet from the
surface of a river or pool The eggs, from five to eight, are
dull white or yellowish, irregularly blotched "SA-ith rust-
coloured spots. The |)eriod of incubation lasts about twenty-
one days, and the young soon follow their parents upon the
surface of the water, or sport among the aquatic plants, ])ur-
suin"" various kinds of insects, Avhich no doubt constitute
almost their chief food. When they first come abroad, I
have observed that they are incapable of diving, and, in
their attempts to disappear under the water, when alarmed
by the sudden approach of a person, make a very grotesque
appearance, bobbing their heads up and down beneath the
surface, and exposing their hind parts, in the manner of
drowning puppies. This incajiability of diving, which, per-
haps, may result from a yet inii)crfect state of the respiratory
organs, is not, however, of long continuance. The reason
why I think tliere are two broods yearly is, that I have
observed the young in this state late in August.

"There arc several circumstances which tend very male-
riallv to ])revent the increase of the species, wliicli ollurwi^c
would become very abundant. As it almost invariably nestles

GREEN-FOOTE]) WATER-HEN. 555

close to the wat(,'r's edge, the nest and eggs are often
destroyed by floods ; and it is not uncommon to notice many
nests, hotli of this hivd and of the Little Grehe, floating on
the swollen and turbid stream, and often containing eggs, or
sometimes young-, which perish either from the absence of
the parent, or from their being unable to contend \vith the
current. The Water-hen has also various enemies, the more
destructive of which to the young birds are the Heron, the
Carrion Crow, the Moor Buzzard, and the Pike.

" 1 know few sights more pleasing than that of a brood
of young Water-hens, led forth by their parents to feed and
sport along the silent margins of a lake or pool, thickly
studded with water-lilies. The lime and waliuit are begin-
ning to shed their fragrance, hardly surpassed by that of the
citron groves of Andalusia, or the odours of 'Araby the
blest.' Yon castellated mansion, once the seat of lordly
baron or gallant knight, but now hoary with age and crum-
bling into ruins, gives solemnity to the scene. The setting
sun flings his golden rays across the lake, skirting the green
woods, and tinting here and there the crested turret, the
overhanging cliif, and the moss-crowned height. Beside
yon pollard willows the cows crop the fresh grass, while
forth sails the stately swan, giving her ample bosom to the
watery expan^se, now ruflled by the evening breeze. There
too, afar, stands the Heron, watching his finny prey ; the
garrulous Wild Bucks chequer the little islands, the Coot
cries from amidst the sedge, the Sandpiper wails along the
shingly beach, and the sonorous croak of the Carrion Crow
is heard from the distant wood. Other sights and sounds
mingle with these, reminding us that we are in happy
England, but leading us to forget the object of our contem-
plation,— the Water-hen. Often this bird, partly crepuscular
in its habits, startles the evening wanderer with its sharply
reiterated chuck. In autumn it will haunt stubbles, for the
purpose of feeding on diflerent kinds of small seeds, which
are found in abundance lying on the ground after the fields
are cleared by the husbandman. I have repeatedly seen it
perch on lofty trees after being flushed, and have known it
to frequent the branches of willows and other shrubs growing

556 GALLDsTLA CHLOROPUS.

near the Avater. "When pursued, it shews great adroitness in
keeping its body beneath the water, leaving only its bill ex-
posed, so that it may obtain the necessary supply of air until
its enemies are past. In such cases I have more than once
caught it by dragging it out of the water by the feet, when I
have been trammelling for tench or carp. When domesti-
cated it becomes pugnacious, and will drive away domestic
poultry from their feeding-places, manifesting a disposition
Avidely different from what might be expected from the
timidity which it evinces when in its native liberty."

Young. — When fully fledged the young have the bill
oil-green, without any red; the exposed part of the tibia of
the same colour ; the tarsus and toes as in the adult. The
upper part of the head and the hind-neck are dull greyish-
brown ; the sides of the head the same, mottled with greyish-
white ; the chin of the latter colour ; the throat mottled with
that and dark greyish-blue. The breast and sides arc pale
purplish-grey, the white marks on the latter duller than in
the old bird ; the abdomen gieyish-white ; the lower tail-
coverts yellowish-white ; the central black feathers lighter.
The upper parts, quills, and tail are nearly as in the adult,
but paler.

Progress toavaru INlATrRiTV. — After the first moult the
red of the bill and legs appears, and the bird assumes the
colours of the adult ; but the lower parts are much paler,
most of the feathers being tipped with whitish, and the head
is still tinged with brown. At the second autumnal moult
the colouring is complete, although still not so pure as in
older birds.

557

FULICA. COOT.

The Coots differ from the Gallinulcs chiefly in having
their toes furnished with a broad scalloped membrane. They
are of moderate size, their body compressed but full, the neck
of ordinary lenf^th, the head rather small and compressed.

Bill not exceeding the head in length, stout, tapering,
much compressed ; upper mandible with its dorsal outline
declinate-convex, the ridge narrow, convex, enlarged at the
base into an elliptical soft tumid plate, which covers the fore
part of the head to beyond the eye, the sides sloping at the
base, convex towards the end ; the nasal groove large ; the
edges hard, sharp ; the tip small, wdth a rather distinct notch ;
lower mandible with the angle long and narrow, the dorsal
outline ascending and nearly straight, the sides erect at the
base, sloping outwards at the end ; the edges of both man-
dibles direct and meeting. The gape-line nearly straight.

Both mandibles internally concave, the lower more deeply.
Palate papillate. Aperture of the posterior nares linear,
margined with papillae. Tongue fleshy, oblong, nearly flat
above, emarginate with a few lateral papillae at the base, the
tip thin, rounded, and lacerated. Aperture of the glottis
smooth, papillate behind, CEsophagus uniform in diameter,
of moderate width ; proventricular glands oblong. Stomach
large, its muscles of great size, its inner coat with numerous
small ruga?. Intestine disposed in numerous close parallel
folds, very long ; the cceca large.

Eyes rather small ; eyelids with the margins bare.
Nostrils linear-oblong, in the fore and lower part of the nasal
groove. Aperture of the ear roundish, rather small. Feet
large ; tibia muscular, its lower part bare ; tarsus of moderate
length, large, compressed, anteriorly covered with broad

558 FULICA. COOT.

curved scutella ; toes very long, slender, compressed, covered
ahove with numerous scutolla, beneath flat laterally expanded
into a broad membrane, which is contracted at the joints, and
thus scalloped, each scallop ha\'ing five series of plates, gra-
dually diminishiug outwards ; the first toe small, the second
a little shorter than the fourth, which is considerably exceeded
by the third. Claws long, slender, much compressed, taper-
ing, acute.

Plumage soft, full, blended, glossy above, dull bencatli,
on the head very short, gradually elongated backwards, on
the sides long, on the tibia? short ; the feathers much curved,
narrow, oblong, broadly rounded, Avith a moderate plumule.

Wings short, concave, rounded ; (piills twenty-four ; prima-
ries strong, broad, tapering, the first considerably shorter than
the second, which is about the same length as the tliird, tlie

FULICA. COOT. ryo9

sixth equal to the first. Tail extremely sliort, arched, much
rounded, of twelve very weak, narrow, rounded feathers.

The C'OOts are proportionally stouter than the Galliindes,
and decidedly aquatic. Their feet are accordingly hetter
adapted for swinnnin<^, and they move on the suface of the
water, aiul dive with as much dexterity and ease as many
ducks and other palmipede birds. Their residence is on
lakes, pools, riv(>rs, and inlets of the sea, amon<r the weeds,
sedges, and other tall aquatic plants, and their food consists
of mollusca, worms, insects, and especially seeds. They
build a very large nest of grasses, flags, and other plants, in
whicli are deposited from five to ten oval light-coloured eggs,
dotted and spotted with dusky. The young, at first covered
with stiffish black down, run about and swim immediately
after they are hatched.

The species of this genus are few in number, and gene-
rally of dark and uniform colours. In Britain there is only-
one, which is extensively distributed, but much more abundant
in the southern districts.

560

FULICA ATRA. THE BALD COOT.

COMMON' COOT. CVTE. QUEET. BAXD DUCK.

Fig. 54.

Fulica atra. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 257.

Fulica atra. Lath. Ind. Orn. II. 777.

Common Coot and Greater Coot. Mont. Ornith. Diet.

Foidque macroule. Fulica atra. Temm. iVfan. d'Orn. II. 706.

Fulica atra. Common Coot. Flcm. Brit. Anim. 100.

Common Coot. Fulica atra. Selb. Illustr. Brit. Ornith. II. 193.

Fulica atra. Common Coot. Jen. Brit. Vert, Anim. 221.

Fulica atra. Bonap. Comp. List, 53.

The head ayid upper part of the neck greyish-black; the
upper parts dark hluish-grey , the loicer hroicnish-grey ; the
frontal plate white, as are the ends of the 7nandibles.

Male. — The Coot, which is the hirgest British hircl of
the Parrine family, is very similar in form to the Water-hen.
Its hody is bulky, but compressed ; its neck of moderate
length ; its head rather small and oblong. The bill is about
the length of the head, straight, stout, compressed, tapering.

BALD COOT. 561

its extremities luirtl and glossy. The frontal plate is broadly
oblong, and extends to the top of the head, beyond the eyes.

The nostrils are linear, four-twelfths of an inch long ; the
aperture of the eyes four-twelfths ; that of the ears three-
twelfths. The roof of the mouth is narrow, flattened, with
two medial series of acute reversed papilla', and two lateral
elevated lines. The tongue fleshy, thick, an inch long, con-
cave above, its tip narrowed, but rounded. The oesophagus
is about nine inches long, rather narrow, with the proventri-
culus somewhat bulbiform. The gizzard is very large, with
extremely thick muscles, transversely elliptical, oblitpie, an
inch and three-fourths long, two inches and three-fourths in
breadth. The epithelium is dense, and forms two large
grinding plates. The intestine, which is long and wide, has
the duodenal fold very elongated, and is then convoluted in
an elliptical form ; its length is five feet, its width seven-
twelfths in the duodenal part. The cocca are extremely
elongated, being thirteen inches in length, very narrow for
about two inches, then from four to five-twelfths in width,
but again narrowed toward the end ; the rectum of uniform
width, without cloacal dilatation.

The legs are of moderate length ; the tarsi with twenty-
four anterior scutella ; the first toe with fourteen, the second
twenty-eight, the third thirty-eight, the fourth thirty-eight.
The claws are long, slender, slightly arched, compressed,
tapering, flat beneath, acute.

The bill is pale red at the base, Avhite at the end ; and the
frontal plate is bluish-white. The iris crimson. The feet
bluish-grey, tinged with olive ; the bare part of the tibia
orange ; the claws olivaceous. The head and neck are
greyish-black ; the lower part of the neck and the upper
parts of the body generally are of a dark bluish-gi-ey, seeming
black at a distance ; the lower parts are dull brownish-gi-ey.
The edge of the wing, and the outer margin of the first
alular feather and first quill, arc whitish.

Length to end of tail IG inches ; extent of wings 22 ;
Aving from flexure 8f ; tail 2^ ; bill along the ridge, in-
cluding the frontal plate, 2^, along the edge of lower man-
dible 1^ ; tarsus 1^ ; first toe -^, its claw jV ; second

N N

662 FULICA ATRA.

toe 2-fj, its cl;iw -fj ; third toe 2\^, its claw -^ ; fourth toe
2^, its claw -jij.

Female. — The female is similar to the male, the tints
only not quite so pure, and tlie size somewhat less.

Variations. — Slight differences in the tints of the plu-
mage may be seen, some individuals being darker than
otliers ; but in general there is httle variation. A very re-
markable variety, however, is not very unfrequently met
Avitli, in wliich the colour is of a light brownish-grey, or
even brownish-white.

Habits. — In summer the Coot is generally distributed in
Britain, being found in suitable localities in all parts from
the southern counties of England to the extreme north of
Scotland, as well as in the remote Hebrides and the Orkney
Islands ; but in Avinter it retires from the northern districts,
and accumulates in favourable places in the south. Viewed
Avith ri'fercnce to the Avhole of Britain, it is a permanently
resident bird, though in most districts it is only a summer
visitant. In spring the great flocks that have collected
along tlie southern and eastern shores of England disperse.
In tlie south of Scotland it arrives in April, but in the north
not until the beginning of May. Its favourite places of
resort are large pools, lakes, or rivers, overgrown or mar-
gined with reeds, flags, sedges, water-lilies, and otlier aquatic
plants, among which it swims about in search of its food,
which consists of seeds, fresh blades of grass, mollusca, and
insects. In shallow pools or marshes densely covered Avith
Equisetum limosum I have seen paths made by it, from Avhich
others diverged in all directions. Sometimes it makes ex-
cursions into the neighbouring fields, Avhere it Avalks and
runs precisely in the same manner as the Water-hen, and
Avith equal ease, the lobes of its feet fonning no impediment
to its free action ; but it is not so ready as tliat bird to quit
its safe retreat on the Avaters. It is extremely shy and vigi-
lant, instantly betakes itself to flight Avhen approached, but
very seldom flics off unless one come suddenly upon it, or a

BALD COOT. rjfV.i

sliot 1)0 fired at it, Avhcn it rises at a very low angle, splashing
up the water Avith its wings and feet, proceeds hut to a short
distance, and alighting conceals itself among the reeds or
equiseta, and remains there until the danger be over. Its
vigilance and distrust of man render it difficult to approach
other birds, such as Ducks or Grebes, that may he on the
same pool, it being almost sure to alarm them by its cries
and flight. It floats lightly on the water, swims sedately,
jerking its tail, and moving its neck backwards and forwards.
When much disturbed it often prefers swimming off to a
distance from the shore, and there, when the water is exten-
sive enough for its safety, it may frequently be seen remaining
for hours, even apparently after it has ceased to be appre-
hensive of danger from the land. It dives with ease, and
sometimes eludes pursuit by retreating under the surface of
the water to emerge in a concealed part. In summer it
emits a very loud, abru])t cry, resembling the note of a
trumpet.

Its nest, which is extremely large, and composed of
decayed flags, reeds, equiseta, and other plants, is placed
among reeds, equiseta, or willoAvs, or sometimes in shallow
•water, being built up to a considerable height. Sometimes
the nests are placed on small islands covered with herbage,
or in unfrequented places on the shores. Mr. Hewitson,
from personal inspection, says : — " They are large, and appa-
rently clumsy at first sight, but arc amazingly strong and
compact ; they are sometimes built on a tuft of rushes, but
more commonly amongst reeds ; some are supported by those
that lie prostrate on the water, whilst others have their
foundations at its bottom, and are raised till they become
from six to twelve inches above its surface, sometimes in a
depth of one and a half or two feet. So firm are some of
them that, whilst up to tlie knees in water, they afforded me
a seat sufficiently strong to support my weight. They are
composed of flags and broken reeds, finer towards the inside,
and contain from seven to eight eggs." The materials vary
according to the locality, and frequently the nests are formed
entirely of equisetum limosum. " These birds," says Mon-
tagu, " place their nest amongst the flags upon the surface

564 FULICA ATRA.

of the water ; but by lieaping a large quantity of the same
materials together, raise the fabric sufficiently above water
to keep the eggs dry. In this buoyant state a sudden flood,
attended by a gale of wind, has been known to drive them
from their moorings ; and we are assured by an intelligent
observer of nature, that he has seen a nest floated from one
side of a large piece of water to the other, with the bird upon
it." The eggs, which vary in number from six to ten, are
much larger than those of the AVater-hcn, but very similar,
being of an elongated oval light yellowish-grey or stone-colour,
marked all over with dots and small spots of brownish-black ;
their average length two inches and one- twelfth, their greatest
breadth an inch and five-twelfths. The young are at first
covered with stifiish black down, tipped with white ; the hind
part of the head yellow ; the frontal membrane blood-red ;
the feet dusky-green.

In the more exposed and colder parts of Britain, the Coots
leave their summer haunts toward the end of autumn. ]Mon-
tagu remarks that " the vast flocks seen in Southampton
River, and other salt-water inlets, in winter, most probably
breed farther north, at least a great part of them ;" and this
is no doubt the case, for there are many breeding places of the
Coot i;i Scotland, which are entirely deserted in winter.
Nor are Coots usually in that country to be seen even in the
estuaries or on muddy sea shores, as in England and Ireland.
In the Hebrides, however, I have seen them remain all winter,
betaking themselves to the sea when the reedy lake to which
they resort was frozen ; and on Duddingston Loch, near
Edinburgh, some continue all the year.

Altliough the flesh of the Coot does not afibrd an agree-
able food, delicate and white as it appears, and often plenti-
fully mixed with fat, which, however, has an unpleasant taste,
vast nunil)ers are shot on the coast of England in winter, not
only for the markets, but as a pleasant and gentlemanly
amusenuMit. " The plan that I have found best," says
Colonel Hawker, " for slaughtering the Coots by wholesale
is, either to listen for them before daylight, and rake them
down at the grey of a white frosty morning, or watch them
at some distance in the afternoon, and set in to them as late

BALD COOT. .006

in the evening as you can sco to level your gun, taking care,
if possible, to keep them under tlie -western light." The
same respectable person informs us how to prepare them for
cooking : — " The recipe for this is, after picking them, to
take off all the black down, by means of powdered resin and
boiling water, and tlu'u to let them soak all night in cold and
spring water, by which they are made to look as white and as
delicate as a chicken, and to eat tolerably well; but, without
this process, the skin in roasting produces a sort of oil, with a
fishy taste and smell ; and if the skin be taken off, the bird
becomes dry, and good for nothing."

In Shetland the Coot is seldom met with ; but in Orkney
it is not unfrequent, and is said to breed and remain through
the year. In the Outer Hebrides it occurs in a few lakes in
Lewis and Harris, and is plentiful in the Uists. It is also
met with in Skye, as Mr. Robert Jamieson informs us. On
the mainland, from the extreme north to the English border,
it is found breeding in ponds, lakes, and marshes. In Eng-
land it is generally distributed, as we learn from the state-
ments of authors, and in many localities continues all the
year. In Ireland also, according to IMr. Thompson, it is
general. On the continent of Europe it extends from Norway
to the Mediterranean. In Asia it is said to occur in India,
China, and Japan. In America it has not been met with ;
but a species very similar, though smaller, occurs there. Its
habits, as described by Audubon, are almost precisely the
same as those of the European Coot.

" Although tlie curious form of their feet, and the situa-
tion of their legs, might induce one to suppose these birds
incapable of moving on land with ease, experience proves the
contrary, for they not only walk with freedom, but can run
with great speed when necessary. They are accustomed to
leave the water, too, and resort to open lands on the margins
of streams and lakes, for the purpose of feeding, both in the
morning and in the evening. While ascending the Missis-
sippi, being about fifty miles above New Orleans, on the 2Ist
of March, 18j22, the weather cloudy, I had the pleasure of
seeing about six or seven hundred of these birds feeding on
the grass of a savannah bordering the river. I took them

566 FULICA ATRA.

while at some distance for a great flock of Guinea Fowls.
Their movements were brisk, they often struck at each other
in the manner of the domestic fowl, and ran with surprising
celerity. As I approached nearer, I plainly saw them nibble
the tender grass, in the same manner as poultry ; and having
found a place of concealment behind a rise of the ground, 1
laid myself flat, and observed their motions at leisure ; but
during twenty minutes spent in that situation, I did not hour
a single note from the flock. I fired among them and killed
five ; on which the rest, after running a few steps, all rose and
flew oflf with speed towards the river, mounted high in the
air, came curving over me, their legs hanging behind, their
wings producing a constant whir, and at length alighted on a
narrow channel between the shore, where I was, and a small
island. Following them with caution, I got sufliciently near
to some of them to be able to see them leap from the water to
seize the young leaves of the willows that overhung the
shores. While swimming, they moved with ease, although
not witli nuuli speed, and used a constantly repeated move-
ment of the head and neck, corresponding to that of the feet.
Now, twenty or thirty of them would close their ranks, and
swim up the stream in a lengthened body, when they Avould
disperse, and pick up the floating substances, not one of them
diving all the time. On firing at a large group of them that
had approached me, they started off" in various directions,
patting the water with their feet, and rushing with extended
wings, f()r thirty or forty yards, but without actually flying."

Young. — When fledged, the young have the bill of a
greyish-green ; the frontal plate, which is very small, being
of the sam(> colour ; the iris brown ; the feet dusky-gi*een, the
upper parts are dark green, the lower light dull brownish-grey.

Procjress towards Maturity. — After the first autimmal
moult, the bill is still dusky, and the frontal plate givenish.
The up})er parts are more grey, the lower ])ure ash-grey ;
the head and upper part of the neck blackish-grey. In spring
tlie frontal plate becomes white, and the yellow band appears
on the tibia.

567

REMARKS ON THE SWIMMING BIRDS.

CRTBRATORES. URINATORES.
MERSATORES.

In the simple, but not altogether physiologically correct
division of the feathered tribes into Land Buxls and Water
Birds, the species Avhich have been described in this volume
are usually referred to the latter, those of the order Cm-sores,
although not of aquatic habits, being included in that series
on account of their general resemblance to the Tentatores.
The Water Birds themselves have by most authors been
sectioned into Littoral and Natatory, Shore Birds and Swim-
ming Birds, Waders and SAvimmers. Those which peculiarly
deserve the name of Littoral Birds and Waders, are the Ten-
tatores and Aucupatores, while the Cursores might be referred
to the Terrestrial, and the Latitorcs, while they present affi-
nities of structure and habits to the Rasores, are in many
instances as aquatic as a large proportion of the birds peculi-
arly so called. The Waders of authors are thus transitional,
being placed between the series of truly terrestrial and that of
truly aquatic birds.

If the Littoral Birds are thus incapable of being strictly
defined, the case is different with those of which the species

568 REMARKS ON THE SWIMMING BIRDS,

that occur in the British seas and fresh waters remain to be
described. They all agree in possessing one ob%'ious common
character, that of having their digits connected by flexible
membranes, formed by an upper and loMer layer, or indupli-
cation of the skin, modified so as to adapt the feet for swim-
ming by converting them into paddles. The instrument thus
formed may be more or less complete, all the digits being
connected in some, the anterior three only in most, and the
Avebs being extended to the full length of the.->e flexible shafts,
or shortened by excision, as it were, of their anterior part, or
even partially cut into lobes j and birds of other groups may
liave feet partially webbed, so as to fit them in various degrees
for the same office ; l)ut all of them are Aveb-footed, and all
swim. They can all walk on the water — for the natation of
a bird that floats on the surface is but a kind of walking,
though the feet be immersed in the liquid. Gradation on
land they are also in some meastu'e adapted for, some in a
very efficient manner, others very imperfectly, a few so ill
that they are usually described as incapable of walking. But
these Palmipede or Natatory Birds present no other common
character, excepting those which belong alike to all the
groups, tlu'ir organization difft'ring so as to render it impos-
sible to include them all in one ordinal category. And why,
it may reasonably be asked, should all the Aveb-footed birds
form a single order, Avhen tliose that are free-toed fonn several '
If they did, it Avould be contrary to analogy.

If an order be anything else than a mere arbitrarily
limited aggregation of specific forms, surely a bird that has a
broad bill covered Avith a thin dense skin, and furnished on
the inner sides of the upper mamlible, and the oiiter sides of
the loAver, Avith series of parallel plates, of a peculiar kind of
cutaneous tissue, arranged like the laminae of a Avhale's baleen,
presents in these very features of its organization characters
so different from those of all other Water Birds, as to merit for
thein, not family, but ordinal distinction, especially as no
gradation is presented between them and any other groups
Avhatever, they being as perfectly isolated as the Parrots or
the Pigeons.

REMARKS ON THE SWIMMING BIRDS. 5G9

These birds, Avhich some, considering them as a family,
name Anatidie, others Lamellirostres, constitnte the order
CiiiBRATORES. Others, essentially ])ivers, and feeding on
fish, are named Urinatores. A third ordinal series, consist-
ing of hirds incapahle of diving in pursuit of their prey, though
they occasionally ])lungc or dip into the water, to obtain it,
may be named Mersatores. Of these three orders, which
are all into which the extensive series of Water Birds
admits of being divided, the characters will be given else-
where at considerable length. Here it is only necessary
to present short definitions, sufficient to enable a person
who may have obtained a web-footed bird to refer it to its
peculiar order.

Cribratores. Sifters. Bill covered with soft skin,
obtuse, and furnished with internal or marginal lamella;.
Tongue large, fleshy, lamellate or papillate on the sides.
Gvsophagus narrow ; stomach an extremely muscular gizzard.
Intestine long, rather wide ; coeca large. Feet with four toes ;
the anterior rather long, the hind toe small and free. Wings
convex ; tail short.

Urinatores. Dhters. Bill strong, tapering, compressed,
pointed, opening rather widely, and dilatable at the base.
Tongue slender, pointed. Oesophagus wide ; stomach rather
large, roundish, w4th the muscular coat rather thick. Intes-
tine long, and rather wide, with moderate cocca. Tarsus
extremely compressed. Wings narrow, pointed; tail ex-
tremely short, or of moderate length.

Mersatores, Pllngers. Bill generally stout, straight,
compressed, opening to beneath the eyes. Tongue fleshy,
tapering, pointed, ffisophagus very wide ; stomach small,
muscular. Intestine rather long, narrow ; coeca very small,
cylindrical. Tarsus not much compressed. Wings very
long, much pointed.

The accompanying figure represents the foot of a Cor-

570

REMARKS ON THE SWIMMING BIRDS.

morant, and is here introduced as typical of the perfect
■webbed foot.

10. 55.

571

XVII. CRIBRAT0RE8. SIFTERS.

By the ordinal name of Cribratores I designate the
extensive, beautiful, and to man very important, and there-
fore very interesting group of birds, which Cuvier lias named
Lamei,i,irostres, — his appellation being indicative of struc-
ture, while mine, in this as in other cases, is descriptive of
function. It is, in fact, the lamcllated bill that renders them
Sifters, and the structure and function of that orsran are
peculiar and distinctive, being found in no other birds. Nay,
more, they belong to every species of the entire series,
although, of course, presenting considerable modifications.

The birds of which this order is composed arc known by
the familiar names of Geese, Swans, Ducks, Teals, Wigeons,
Pochards, Shovellers, and others ; together with the Flamin-
goes and ^Mergansers. These all agree in having the bill
covered with soft skin, the only hard or horny parts being
the two ungues or nail-like bodies situated one at the tip of
each mandible, and in the presence of numerous transverse
or oblique elevated lamella? on the inner sides of both man-
dibles ; at the margins of which they are generally enlarged,
and assume various forms in the different species, of which
tlie bill may thus be described as marginally lamellate, pec-
tinate, serrate, or denticulate. It is impossible to mistake
any member of the fiimily, and therefore much time needs
not be occupied with its distinctive characters ; but a single
genus and a small group seem, at first sight, to stand aloof
from the rest. Of the group alluded to, that of the Mer-
gansers, the characters will subsequently be given in detail ;
and the genus, that of the Flamingoes, with which, as stu-

572 CRIBRATORES. SIFTERS.

dents of British Ornithology-, vrc arc not concerned, I have
shewn, by the description of its digestive organs, in the fifth
volume of Mr, Audubon's Ornithological Biography, to be
nothing else, as some would say, than " a modified Goose."
Setting aside these for the present, let us take a general view
of the main body.

The species generally known as Swans, Geese, and
]}ucks appear to form a single, well-defined family, of which
the members present various gradations. Tlius, the bill may
be as long as the head, or a little longer, or shorter in all
degrees to half its length. It is always higher than broad at
the base, but it may be of the same uniform breadth to the
end, or it may become narrower, or in a few instances
broader. Its terminal imguis may be round, elliptical,
oblong, obovate, triangular or linear, very convex or nearly
flat ; moderately, much, or abruptly decurved, sometimes,
though very rarely, so much as to have its edge directed
backwards. The margins of the upper mandible may be
arched, sinuate, or straight. The lamellae may be large or
small, distant or close, prominent or scarcely elevated, and
their outer ends may be rounded, triangular, tooth-like, or
sometimes acicular or capillary, projecting far beyond the
margin, or moderately, or slightly, or not at all. So is it
with the other organs. The legs may be long, short, or very
short ; the tarsi roundish or compressed. The hind toe,
always small and elevated, may be free, or with a slight
membrane, or having a membranous lobe, connecting it in
some degree with the base of the two-lobed membrane of
the inner toe. The interdigital membranes may be full, even
at their margin, or emarginate in various degrees, or in a
few instances dimidiate. The claws, never large, may be
compressed or flattened, acute or obtuse. The wings may
be long, of moderate length, or very short, convex in various
degrees, and with a varying number of quills ; the tail ex-
tremely short, short, moderate, or long, with from twelve to
twenty-four feathers. Tlie digestive organs vary less in their
general characters, but yet exhibit differences of considerable
amount. The trachea, however, presents extraordinary pecu-
liarities, being sometimes nearly of uniform width, some-

CRIBRATOKES. SIFTERS. 673

times liiivin<^ cnlar^omeiits of various forms ; the lower larynx
small or moderate, eompressed, or bulying out into curiously
varied bony sacs or cells.

])ifferences in habits are also conspicuous. Thus some,
as the Geese and Swans, feed entirely on vegetable siil)-
stanccs ; others, as the Pochards, chiefly on shell-fish. Some
resort to fresh->vater marshes, lakes, or rivers, Avliile others
are peculiarly nuirinc. Most of them nestle on the ground,
but some on rocks, and even on trees, or rather in their
decayed cavities. Some make a plain nest of rushes, grass,
and other plants ; but others line the nest with down which
the female plucks from her breast. Some are easily domesti-
cated, while others seem untameable. Their flesh, too, varies
in qiuility, depending on the nature of the food.

As the species graduate into each other, both in form and
in habits, from the gi*ass-eating Geese to the fish-eating
llarelds, it is difficult, notwithstanding the facility of de-
scribing species afforded by the diversities above alluded to,
to divide this large group into sections. In fact, neither
families nor genera can be strictly defined among them ; so
that, Averc it not to facilitate the examination of a group,
numerous and rather difficult sometimes to be individually
distinguished, it might be expedient to leave it undivided.
At first sight a Goose seems sufficiently different from a
Duck, to induce one to suppose that Geese and Ducks form
distinct families ; but, then, birds present themselves which
one may call a Goose, another a Duck, and a third neither.
However, I think we may venture on assuming four fami-
lies— Geese, Swans, Ducks, and Pochards.

The Geese, Anserine, have the body ovate, large, and
full ; the neck long ; the head small ; the bill stout and
somewhat conical ; the legs rather long ; the wings of great
length and breadth. They feed entirely on vegetable sub-
stances.

So do the Swans, Cygninje, which, hoAvever, have the
body very large and elongated ; the neck excessively long,
but the feet very short and thick ; the bill rather long, and
of equal breadth throughout.

The Ducks, properly so called, or Anatin.e, have a rather

574 CRIBRATORES. SIFTERS.

elongated, elliptical body, a moderate neck, large but com-
pressed head, longish bill, depressed, and rather narrow or
not very broad, -with short or moderate feet, of which the
hind toe has merely a compressed rudimentary expansion
beneath, not sufficiently developed to be called a web. They
are radicivorous, gTaminivorous, granivorous, insectivorous,
reptilivorous ; in short, some of them eat almost anything
eatable.

The Pochards, or Diving Ducks, Fuligulix^i:, differ from
the rest, which never dive in search of food, in being habitual
divers. They have the body shorter, broad, being flattened
or depressed ; the neck short, the head large, the bill gene-
rally short and broad or thick, the feet very short and placed
farther back, the hind toe with a lobiform membrane. They
feed on mollusca, Crustacea, and fish, occasionally only on
vegetable matters.

A " typical " Goose seems quite distinct from a typical
Duck; yet not even their skeletons shew very tangible
characters.

In the Geese the skeleton is strongly constructed. The
skull rather broad, the interorbital space Avide, the max-
illary bones large and stout, the lower strong, both concave
and rounded at the end. The neck is long, with eighteen
vertebrae ; the dorsal ten, the lumbar and sacral sixteen,
the coccygeal seven. The pelvis long and of moderate
breadth, its bones leaving two large oblong interspaces ;
the pubes slender, enlarged and dccurvcd toward the end.
There are ten flattened ribs, the first not reaching the
sternum, and both it and the three last without processes.
Tlie sternum large, broad, Avith a prominent carina, its pos-
terior margin even, with two deep notches. The clavicles
stout, short, moderately spreading ; the furcula strong, wide,
and much curved. The bones of the wing stout, the humerus
and cubitus of equal length, the pollex tapering, the meta-
carpals united at both ends, two digits, the outer with two
bones, the inner of one. The femur stout and short ; the
tibia long, with the fibula partially united ; the tarsus mode-
rate, broad below ; the digits with two, three, four, five
phalanges.

CllIBRATORES. SIFTERS. 575

In the Swans the skeleton is also strong;. The skull is
more elongated, the interorbital space broader, tlie maxillary
hones longer and less strong, both more concave. The neck
is extremely long, with twenty-two vertebrir ; the dorsal
ten, the lumbar and sacral fifteen, the coccygeal seven. The
pelvis is longer and narrower. There are ten flattened ribs,
the first and four last without processes, and the last not
connected with either the spine or the sternum. The latter
is narrower tlum in tlie Geese, but otherwise similar, only
the carina is generally hollowed for the reception of a curve
ot the trachea ; in which case there is a hollow on the fork
of the furcula, which is more slender, narrower at the fork,
and more curved than in the Geese. Unless as to length,
the wings and feet are as in them.

The Ducks have the skeleton proportionally less stout,
with the head more like that of the Swans than of the
Geese, the skull less elevated, and the jaws more flattened.
There are from fourteen to sixteen cervical vertebrae, eight
dorsal, fourteen lumbar and sacral, seven coccygeal. Of the
nine slender ribs the first and two last have no processes,
and the last has an appendage projecting backwards from
the upper end of its sternal portion. The pelvis is long, as
in the Swans. The sternum of moderate length, broadish,
with two deep notches behind. The furcula is moderately
stout and arched. The cubital bones a little shorter than
the humerus.

Tlie Diving Ducks have the body shorter, as is the neck,
in which, however, the vcrtcbrse are from fourteen to sixteen.
The jaws are shorter and broader. The dorsal vertebra?
eight, the lumbar and sacral twelve, the coccygeal seven.
The pehas is shorter and broader, as is the sternum. The
furcula less curved. Of the ten ribs the first and two last
have no processes. The tarsal bone is shorter and narrower
than in the Ducks ; but the bones of the wing are similar.

One skeleton graduates into another, as is the case with
the exterior generally, and the organs in particiilar. With-
out attempting to define the groups by unvarying characters,
let us see in what respects they agree.

The body in all is large, full, and muscular, with a thick

576 CHIBRATORES. SIFTERS.

tough skill, attacluHl to wliicli is a considerable layer of adi-
pose tissue ; the head oblong, compressed. The bill never
very long, and sometimes short, is ahvays covered ■with soft
skin, and furnished Avith internal mar<rinal lamella?. The
tongue is fleshy, papillate at the base, medially grooved, late-
rally ciliated or furnished with reversed bristles, and having
a flattened, thin, roundish tip. The oesophagus is narrow,
without crop, but sometimes considerably dilated at the lower
part of the neck. The stomach is always an extremely mus-
cular gizzard, with a dense epithelium, having two grinding
plates. The intestine is long, and rather wide, with two long
and moderately Mide cffca ; the rectum cylincU-ical. The
trachea in the female is uniform, of moderate bony rings; but
in the males are diversiform enlargements at its lower extre-
mity. The contractor muscles, which are very large, give off"
two slips, which are attached to the clavicle, and end in two
others, which go to the sternum, there being no inferior
laryngeal muscles.

The skin is covered with a fine close elastic down. The
feathers are of moderate size, ovate or oblong, curved, with
the basal fllaments very downy, and a downy plumule of con-
siderable length ; the feathers of the head and neck very
small, slender, in the male blended and glossy. The quills
are strong, and the tail feathers generally firm.

All the species form a regular, though not generally
neatly constructed nest. The eggs are always numerous,
nearly elhptical, smooth, and of a uniform light tint, white,
or hght greenish or cream-colour. The young, clothed with
thick stiffish down, run, SAvim, and dive from the flrst. I
know of no other general characters. Those peculiar to the
different groups will be given in order.

The Cribratores, among the swimming birds, are appa-
rently analogous to tlie llasores among the Land Birds, and
have generally been considered as such. Next to the Galli-
naceous Birds they are those which are most directly useful
to man. To this series belong some of our most important
domesticated species : the Common Goose, the Duck, the
Swan, and several others of less value. Their feathers, supe-
rior to those of other birds in elasticity and softness, afford

CRIBRATORES. SIFTERS. 577

the best materials for beds and pillows ; the down of some
species is used in the colder countries for quilts and coverlets ;
the skin witli tlie down attached affords articles of clothin<r ;
and the (juills of others, especially the Grey Goose, have
supplied for aj^es the instruments by which the philosopher,
the historian, and the poet, have communicated to their con-
temporaries and transmitted to posterity their discoveries and
thoughts. Many species afford most savoury food, and of
some the flesh is lauded by the epicure as superlative ; but,
in general, they are inferior to the Gallinaceous Birds as
articles of food, at least to persons not of robust habit, or
not engaged in laborious occupations.

In the wild state, all the birds of this family are very shy
and vigilant, but several of them are very easily domesticated ;
and it appears strange that we should not have reduced more
of them to a state of servitude, The reason, however, seems
to be that the common Goose and Duck, already subjugated,
answer nearly all the purposes that could be accomplished by
the domestication of other species. Their sense of sight and
hearing are moderately acute ; their smell Ave have no means
of estimating ; but their taste and touch, if we may judge
from the size and distribution of the nerves with which the
bill, covered by soft skin, is furnished, and the fleshy nature
of the tongue, must be superior to that of most birds. Their
instincts are varied and remarkable. In flying to a distance,
and especially when migrating, they have a tendency to form
files or angular lines ; they are all in some degree gregarious,
living together in the greatest harmony, and communicating
their feelings by repeated cries and modulations of their voice ;
when their wants are satisfied they exhibit a great degiee of
sportiveness, especially when on the water, shooting alon^,
diving, and splashing with their wings. Their intellectual
faculties, if not of a high order, are not inferior to those of
most Water Birds. Like the ass, and all submissive drudges,
however useful, the Goose has obtained a character for stupi-
dity by no means merited, its intellect being far superior to
that of the Domestic Fowl, Turkey, or Peacock.

This order may be divided into six subordinate groups or
families : — The Flamingoes, Geese, Swans, Ducks, Pochards,

0 0

578

CRIBRATORES. SIFTERS.

and Mergansers, respectively named, according to the mode
of speech employed by the naturalist, Phcrnicopterinsp, An-
serinee, Cygnina>, .\natina?, Fuligulinir, and Mcrgauscrinse ;
of all Avhich, the first excepted, representatives occur in
Britain. The PhaMiicopterinie, of Avhicli only three species
are known, are characterized by a very peculiar fi)rniation of
the bill, which is suddenly deflected in the middle, and by
the extreme elongation of the neck and legs, insomuch that
these birds have by many ornithologists been placed among
the Waders. The Merganserinae are distinguished by an
attenuated bill, of which the lamelhe are dentiform, resemb-
ling the teeth of a saw. But even these groups blend with
the rest, Phcenicopterus being connected with the Geese by
the genus Cereopsis, and Merganser passing into the Fuligu-
lina} by means of the genus Mergus. The other famiHes are
so connected that it is impossible strictly to define them ; and
therefore in giving their characters, I shall confine myself to
general and comprehensive terms, applicable only with some
latitude.

579

ANSERIN7E.

GEESE AND ALLIED SPECIES.

TiiK birds populiirly known by the names of Geese,
Swans, and Ducks, altliougli so intimately connected by the
complex modification of their organs, as to render it impos-
sible to institute well defined sections among them, are too
nuincrous to be considered as forming a single family, their
analogical relations to other groups rendering it necessary to
subdivide them into fiimilies and genera. In instituting these
sections it seems to me that we must be guided more by the
general form than by the modifications of particular organs.
Were we, for example, to place together all the species which
have the bill short, and in some degi'ee tapering or conical,
then those in which it is longer and of nearly equal breadth
throughout, and those distinguished by an elongated bill,
enlarged toward the end, w^e should find our groups composed
of birds in other respects very unlike each other. A similar
result would ensue from our associating the species furnished
with long legs, placing those with moderate legs in another
group, and those with short legs in a third. But if, on the
other hand, we take all the large-bodied, long-necked, mode-
rate-legged, and strong-billed species, and place them together,
we constitute a group of which all the members have a great
mutual resemblance, although many of them may differ in
some respects, one having the feet larger, another the bill
broader, and the third the neck longer than the standard or
typical species. According to this latter method then, we
may associate all the very large, full-bodied species, known by
the names of Geese and Bernicles, forming them into a f\imilv,
to which the name of Anserinse may be given, and of wliich
the general characters seem to be the followin<]r : —

The body is ovate, or elliptical, very large and full, of

5K0 ANSERIN.E.

nearly equal height and breadth ; the neck long, or extremely
elongated, and rather slender ; the head rather small, oblong,
compressed, and arched above. The bill is stout, short, or of
moderate length, much higher than broad at the base, gradu-
ally depressed toward the end, narrowed or of equal breadth
throughout, with large convex ungues. The upper mandible
internally concave, with a median tubcrculate ridge, one or
two series of tubercles on each side, then a series of flattened
lamelhc, and along the margin numerous lamellae, often
enlarged at the end, but varying in form. The tongue is
fleshy, thick, margined with pointed papilhr or fibres. The
oesophagus long, narrow, enlarged at the lower part. The
stomach an extremely developed, oblique, transversely ellip-
tical gizzard, having the lateral muscles excessively thick, the
tendons large, and the epithelium forming two circular, some-
what concave, tliick grinding plates. The intestine is long,
rather narrow, in numerous folds ; the ca^ca long, narrow at
the base, then enlarged and nearly cylindrical. The trachea
of numerous broad, considerably flattened rings, has no
remarkable dilatations, and the inferior larynx is simple, that
is, destitute of labyrinth, and compressed in the typical
genera ; but in those wliich graduate into the Anatinae is
usually furnished with an enlargement.

The nostrils are small, or moderate, submedial, oblong ;
the eyes small; the aperture of the ear rather small. The
legs, placed considerably forward, so as to balance the body
in a horizontal or little inclined position, are very strong, but
vary in length. The toes are four ; the hind toe very small,
either rounded beneath, or with a small thickened lobe ; the
anterior toes rather long, the outer little shorter than the
medial ; the interdigital membranes full ; the claws short,
rather compressed, obtuse.

The plumage is rather full, close, and firm, iniless on the
head and neck, where it is short, soft, more or less blended.
The wings are very long and broad ; the humerus and cubitus
proportionally shorter than the outer part ; the primaries
decurved, the second and third longest, the first little shorter.
The tail short, rounded, of from sixteen to twenty-four
feathers.

ANSERINE. 581

These birds inhabit chiefly the arctic and antarctic regions
in summer, mi<j^ratin<^ in autumn toward the equator. They
are all decidedly gregarious, fly in lines when journeying,
have a strong and rapid flight, usually keep at a great height,
and being conspicuous by their size and loud cries, as well as
important in an economical point of view, gladden the inha-
bitants of the colder regions by their annual appearance as
the harbingers of summer. Their nests are bulky, placed on
the ground, in marshy situations ; their eggs numerous,
ovate or elliptical, white, or tinged with various hues, but
always of one colour. They walk slowly, but swim with ease,
although they never dive, unless in sport or when wounded,
and feed entirely on vegetable substances, chiefly grass and
seeds. Their quills, feathers, and down, are employed for
various purposes, and their flesh is savoury and nutritious,
although rather difficult of assimilation. Next to the Swans
they are the largest birds of the order to w-hich they belong,
and those small species which some consider as Geese in
miniature are in reality Ducks.

Those which occur in Britain may be arranged and briefly
characterized in the following manner : —

SYNOPSIS OF TEE BRITISH GENERA AND SPECIES.

GENUS I. ANSER. GOOSE.

Bill as long as the head, or considerably shorter, stout,
straight, sub-conical, of much greater height than breadth at
the base, narrowed toward the end, where it is somewhat
depressed, and broadly rounded, with a large, very convex,
firm-edged unguis ; the lamellae of the upper mandible exter-
nally triangular, dentiform, and projecting ; tarsus strong,
moderately compressed, reticulated all round with small
angular scales ; hind toe free, flattened beneath, anterior
toes rather long, scutellate, unless toward the base ; interdi-
gital membranes full ; claws short, strong, arched, obtuse ;
feathers of the neck oblong, convex, arranged in oblique

682 ANSERINE.

ridges ; wings long, broad, of twenty-six quills, the second
longest ; tail short, rounded, of sixteen rounded feathers.

1. Anscr ferus. Thicl-hiUcd Grey Goose. About thirty-
two incht s long; with the bill very thick, as long as the head,
yellowish-orange, with the unguis grey or white ; tarsus three
inches long, flesh-coloured ; head and neck greyish-brown ;
hind part of back light ash-grey.

2. Anser segctum. Narroic-hiUed Grey Goose. About
thirty inches long ; with the bill moderately thick, nearly as
long as the head, yellowish-orange, Avith the base and unguis
black ; tarsus three inches long, orange-yellow ; head and
neck greyish-brown ; hind part of back blackish-brown.

3. Anser hrachyrhynchus. Shoi't-hiUed Grey Goose.
About twenty-eight inches long ; with the bill shorter than
the head, carmine, with the base and unguis black ; tarsus
two inches and a half long, pale purplish pink ; head and
neck gi-eyish-brown ; hind part of back deep ash-giey.

4. Anser alhifrons. White-fronted Goose. About
tAventy-eight inches long ; vAih. the bill thick, short, carmine ;
with the unguis Avhite ; tarsus orange-red ; forehead white,
with a black band behind ; lower parts gi-eyish- white, irregu-
larly patched with black.

5. Anser Canadensis. Canada. Goose. About forty-two
inches long ; with the bill moderate, black ; the tarsi and
toes black ; the head and two-thirds of the neck black ; a
broad band of white across the throat ; upper parts greyish-
brown, lower greyish-wliite.

GENUS II. BERNICLA. BERNICLE GOOSE.

Bill much shorter than the head, moderately stout,
straiglit, sub-conical, liigher than broad at the base, narrowed
toward the end, where its breadth does not exceed its lieight,
rounded, with the unguis large, very convex, and Arm-edged ;
tlie lamella; of the iippcr mandible rounded, and scarcely
])roiccting ; tarsus stout, moderately compressed, reticulated
all round ; hind toe free, flattened beneath, anterior toes
rather long, scutellate, miless toward the base ; interdigital
membranes full ; claws short, arcuate, rather depressed.

ANSKRIN^E. 583

obtuse ; feathers of tlie neck narrow, flat, not arranged in
ridges ; wings long, broad, of twenty-eiglit (juills, the second
longest ; tail short, rounded, of sixteen rounded feathers.

1. Bcrnicla leucojjsis. White-faced Bernicle Goose.
About twenty-six inches long ; with the fore part and sides
of the head and the throat white ; the hind head and neck
glossy black ; scapulars and wing-coverts ash-grey, banded
with black.

2. Bernicla Brenta. Black-faced Bernicle Goose. About
twenty-four inches long ; with the h(;ad and neck glossy
black, a patch of white dotted with black on each side
of the upper neck ; scapulars and Aving-coverts brownish-

grey-

3. Bernicla rufcoll is. Bed-ncckcd Bernicle Goose. About

twenty-two inches long ; with the throat, upper part of the
head, and a band down the neck, black ; a white spot before
the eye, behind it a white space inclosing a brownish-red
patch ; fore neck red ; breast black.

GENUS III. CHENALOPEX. FOX-GOOSE.

Bill nearly as long as the head, stout, straight, sub-coni.
cal, of not much greater height than breadth at the base,
slightly narrowed toward the end, where it is broadly rounded,
with the unguis large, very convex, much decurved, and
strong-edged ; the lamellee of the upper mandible externally
thin and concealed ; tarsus stout, moderately compressed,
reticulated with small angular scales ; hind toe free, with a
thick narrow lobe beneath ; anterior toes rather long, scutel-
late unless toward the base ; claws short, strong, little arched,
rather compressed, obtuse ; wings rather long, broad, with
the second quill longest ; tail short, rounded, of fourteen
rounded feathers.

1. Chenalopex ^gyptiacus. Egijptian Fox-Goose. About
twenty-eight inches long ; with a prominent margin at the
base of the upper mandible, and a bare knob on the wing ;
the bill reddish flesh-colour, with the unguis and part of the
margin of the upper mandible black ; a roundish space about
the eye light chestnut-red \ the wing-coverts white, the

684 ANSERINiE.

secondary coverts with a transverse black band near the end ;
the lower parts cream-coloured, with a lai-ge chestnut-red
patch on the breast.

GENUS IV. PLECTROPTERUS. SPUR-WIXGED GOOSE.

Bill nearly as long as the head, stout, straight, sub-conical,
of nearly equal height and breadth at the base, where there is
a protuberance broadly rounded at the end, -w-ith the unguis
large, very convex, much decurved, and strong-edged ; the
lamellae of the upper mandible externally thin and concealed ;
tarsus stout, moderately compressed, reticulated ; hind toe
with a thick narrow lobe ; anterior toes rather long ; claws
short, strong, arcuate, obtuse ; wings rather long, broad, with
a projecting pointed spur on the tarsal joint ; tail short,
rounded.

1. Plectropterus Gamhensis. Gamho Spur-xcxnged Goose.
Bill reddish-yellow ; feet orange ; upper part of head and
neck brown ; lower part of the neck, sides of the breast, and
upper parts, black, glossed with green ; lower parts white.

585

ANSER. GOOSE.

The Geese, properly so called, are birds of large size,
having the body remarkably full, ovate, rather higher than
broad ; the neck long and slender ; the head rather small in
proportion to the general size, arched above, oblong, and
compressed.

Bill as long as the head or considerably shorter, stout,
straight, sub-conical, of much greater height than breadth at
the base, narroAved toward the end, where it is somewhat
depressed and broadly rounded ; upper mandible with the
lateral and superior basal margins semicircular, forming two
short, moderately pointed angles ; the ridge broad and flat-
tened at the base, gi-adually narrowed and convex ; the
dorsal line declinate and straight to near the unguis, which is
round, very convex, decurved, and strong, w^th a firm edge,
the sides sloping and convex, the nasal space oblong from
near the base to the middle, covered by the soft membrane
of the bill ; the edges soft, arcuate, denticulate with the
triangular projecting outer ends of the oblique lamellae ;
lower mandible with the intercrural space long, rather wide,
its membrane anteriorly bare, the short dorsal line convex,
the crura long, rather narrow, their lower outline somewhat
re-arcuate, their sides sloping outwards and convex ; the
edges elevated, inclinate, denticulate with the short outer
extremities of the numerous oblique lamellse ; the unguis
roundish and moderately convex; the gape-line arcuate,
commencing under the upper basal angle of the mandible.

Mouth of moderate width. Anterior palate concave,
with a lateral series of flattened papillae on each side, sepa-
rated by a gi-oove from the marginal lamellae, a medial row
of prominent tubercles, and on each side of it one or two

586 ANSER. GOOSE.

series of scattered paiiilUv. The tongue is fleshy, thick,
rather narrow, convex, with a deep median groove above,
furnished with straiglit sub-acicuhir papillaj at the base,
laterally margined with numerous slender, acuminate, re-
versed, horny papillae ; its tip tliin, concave, rounded, and
horny. Q-lsojdiagus long, narrow, with the lower part en-
larged ; the glandular belt broad. Stomach an extremely
developed, oblique, transversely elliptical gizzard, of whicli
the lateral muscles are excessively thick, their tendons large
and radiated, the lower muscle narrow and prominent, the
epithelium forming two circular, very thick, smoothish,
marginally grooved, slightly concave, grinding plates. The
intestine is long, rather narrow, arranged in about ten or
twelve oblique folds; the coeca long, slender at the base,
then of moderate width, somcAvhat narrowed tOAvard the
end, Avhich is obtuse.

The trachea, of numerous broad, considerably flattened
rings, enlarges a little toward the furcular space, where it
fomis a slight curve, then contracts, and becomes much
compressed at the end ; the bronchi very short and Avide.

Nostrils moderate, oblong, siib-medial, in the loAver and
fore part of the nasal groove. Eyes small, eyelids feathered,
Avith bare crenulate margins. Aperture of ear rather small.
Feet rather short or moderate, strong, placed Avell forAvard,
so that the body is nearly horizontal ; tibia bare for a very
short sjiace ; tarsus moderately compressed, reticulated with
small angular scales. Hind toe A'ery small, elevated, thick
and scabrous beneath ; anterior toes rather long, the outer
little shorter than the third, the second considerably shorter ;
all scaly at the base, but Avith numerous scutella in the rest
of their extent ; the interdigital membranes reticulate, full,
the outer more or less emarginate, the second or inner toe
Avith a narroAv, slightly tAvo-lobed marginal Aveb. ChiAvs
short, arched, rather compressed, obtuse, that of the third
toe curved outAvards, Avitli the inner side expanded and the
tip rounded.

Plumage full, close, firm, unless on the head and neck.
l<\'athers of the head vcrv small and oblong; of the neck
narroAv, arranged in oblique scries into ridges and grooves,

ANSEll. GOOSE. 587

of its lower part broad and rounded ; those of the fore ])art
of tlie back and the larger wing-coverts very broad and
abruptly terminated, of the hind part of the back ovate and
rounded, of the breast small, but of the sides very large,
much curved, and abrupt ; the scapulars very large ; the
humerals eight or ten, narrow, rounded. The wings long,
broad, with twenty-six quills and pointed, the first quill
being slightly shorter than the second, which is longest, the
outer four or five quills more or less cut out toward the
end ; the secondaries broad and rounded ; the inner elon-
gated. Tail short, rounded, of sixteen rather broad, rounded
feathers.

Yellow, orange, or red are the predominant colours in
the feet, as well as in the bill, which is sometimes partially
black. Grey, brown, and white prevail in the plumage.

The Geese inhabit chiefly the temperate and arctic
regions of both continents. They reside mostly in marshes,
but frequently betake themselves to dry pastures and fields.
Their food consists of vegetable substances, chiefly grasses,
but also the leaves, stems, and roots of various herbaceous
plants, as well as seeds. Although they feed chiefly on
land or in marshy places, and walk strongly, generally in a
sedate manner, they also, Avhen swimming in shallow water,
pull up the submersed parts of vegetables by immersing the
head and neck ; but in searching for food they never dive.
The strong-curved, thin-edged ungues, of which the inner
surface is grooved or scrobiculate, are the instruments used
in cuttting plants for food ; and the action of the gizzard is
aided by a great quantity of fine quartz sand. They sit
lightly on the water, and swim with considerable s])eed,
keeping the neck erect. Their flight is strong, moderate as
to speed, sedate, with short movements of their outspread
wings, the neck stretched forward. When flying to a dis-
tance they arrange themselves in lines, either continuous or
angular, and when migrating keep at a great height. Their
cries are strong, harsh, and creaking, but not disagreeable
when coming from a distance. They are at all seasons
gregarious. The nest, composed of gi-ass and other herbage,
is placed in marshes or on islands. The eggs, numerous.

588 ANSER. GOOSE.

elliptical, and white, variously tinged. The male remains
-ivith the female and young. The Geese appear to moult
only once yearly, in the end of summer. Their flesh is
highly esteemed, although difficult to he digested. As no
two species agree precisely in the form of the bill, I see no
reason for separating the Snow Goose from this genus, of
which five species are met with in Britain.

589

ANSER FERUS.

THE THICK-BILLED GREY
GOOSE.

WILD GOOSE. MAUSII GOOSE. GUEY LAG. GUEY-GOOSE. FEN GOOSE.

Flo. 57.

Anas. Anser. Linn. Sj-st. Xat. I. 197.

Anas Anser. Lath. Ind. Orn. IL 84L

Grey Lag Goose. Mont. Om. Diet, and Supplt.

Oie cendree ou premiere. Anas anser ferus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. IL 818.

Anser ferus. Temm. Man. d'Orn. IV. 517.

Grey Lag Wild Goose. Anser palustris. Selb. Illustr. II. 261.

Anser ferus. "Wild Goose. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 222.

Anser cinereus. Bonap. Comp. List, -55.

Male thirty-three inches long ; hill very thick, as long as
the head, two inches aiicl a half in length, an inch and a half
in height at the base, ten-and-a-half-ticelfths in breadth be-
hind the circular unguis, yelloicish-orange, with the unguis
white or bluish-grey ; the tarsus three inches long, flesh-
coloured ; the icings scarcely shorter than the tail ; feathers
of the neck linear-oblong, disposed in ridges ; head and neck
greyish-brown ; upper parts grey and brown, barred with the
whitish terminal margins af the feathers ; hind part of back
ash-grey ; lower parts pale brownish-grey, becoming white
behind. Female similar, but smaller. Young with the upper
parts darker, the head and neck of a lighter brown.

590 ANSER FERLS.

Male in Winter. — The "Wild Goose, although not of an
elegant form, has none of the a^vkward appearance of our
domestic species, wliich is generally supposed to owe its origin
to it, being a strong, vigourous, and moderately active bird.
The body is very large and full ; the neck long, at its upper
part slender ; the head proportionally small, ovate-oblong,
and compressed.

The bill is about the length of the head, much larger than
in any other of our species, higher than broad at the base ;
the upper mandible with the ridge broad and flat at the base,
gradually narrowed and convex toward the end, terminated
by a nearly circular convex unguis ; the dorsal line sloping,
on the unguis arcuato-decurvate, the sides sloping, the edges
arcuate, marginate, with eighteen oblique lamellte, of which
the outer ends are dentiform, rather acute, and prominent ;
the lower mandible with the intercrural space rather narrow,
rounded anteriorly, extending nearly to the unguis, which is
smaller than the upper, but of the same form ; the lower out-
line of the crura considerably convex, their sides rounded, the
edges sloping inwards, and having thirty lamellae.

The mouth is an inch and a half in Avidth. The anterior
palate concave, with two lateral rows of short lamina?, sepa-
rated from the marginal lamincc by a groove, and five rows of
small dentiform papilUr. The tongue is fleshy, narrow, with
marginal series of spicular horny papilla? directed backwards,
and a rounded, concave, thin, horny tip. The oesophagus is
eighteen inches long, of nearly uniform width ; the proventri-
cular part a little dilated. The gizzard is extremely large and
muscular, transversely elliptical ; its epithelium dense, of a
cartilaginous hardness, rugous, with distinct oblique fibres.
The lateral muscles of extreme size, with large radiating
tendons, of which the fibres are interlaced at their junction.
The intestine is eight feet long ; one of the coeca eight, the
other nine inches in length.

The nostrils are oblong, four and a half twelfths in length,
about the middle of the bill, in the anterior and lower part of
the oblongo-elliptical nasal space, which is covered by mem-
brane, and parallel to tlie ridge. The eyes are rather small,
their aperture being four-twelfths. The legs rather short and

THICK-BILLED GREY GOOSE. 591

strong- ; the tibia bare for about nine-twelfths of an inch; the
tarsus compressed, covered all round witli angular scales, of
whicli the anterior are sub-hexagonal, Hat, witli a small cen-
tral circular prominence, the posterior rhomboidal. The toes
are large, except the first, which is very small, elevated, and
free ; the third a little longer than the fourth ; the second
considerably shorter ; the middle toe with thirty narrow
scutella extending nearly its whole length, the lateral simi-
larly scutellate, but with small scales on the first phalanx ;
the inner having eighteen, the outer thirty-two scutella. The
soles flattened and rough ; the inner toe with an exjjanded,
thin-edged, two-lobed membrane ; the iuterdigital membranes
with roundish scales, the inner with its margin straight, the
outer concave. The claws arc short, strong, slightly curved,
obtuse, that of the middle too dilated internally, and rounded.
The feathers of the head are very small and short, rounded,
and blended ; of the upper part of the neck small linear-
oblong, imbricated, and arranged in ridges, with deep inter-
vening grooves. The feathers of the fore part of the back
and wings very close, large broad, abrupt; the scapulars
very large ; the feathers of the hind part of the back short,
rounded, flatter, and less close ; those of the breast ovate,
rather small ; of the sides very large and abrupt. The
wings are rather long, reaching nearly to the end of the
tail, broad ; the quills twenty-six ; the hunierals ten, narrow,
and rounded ; the secondaries broad, abruptly and obliquely
rounded. The second primary is longest, the first three-
fourths of an inch shorter, the third a quarter of an inch
shorter than the first, the second and tliird slightly cut out
externally, the first and second cut out toward the end inter-
nally. The tail is very short, direct, rounded, of sixteen
broad, rather rounded but acuminate feathers ; the lateral
half an inch shorter than the medial.

The bill is yellowish-orange, with the upper unguis bluish
grey, nearly white, the lower darker. The iris broAvn. The
feet flesh-coloured ; the claws purplish-grey. The head and
neck are greyish-brown, the fore-neck and breast gr-adually
shaded into paler, the latter fading into greyish-white ; the
hind part of the abdomen and lower tail-coverts, the sides of

592 ANSER FERUS.

tlie rump, and the upper tail-coverts white. The smaller
wing- coverts, the secondary coverts, the primary coverts,
alula, and lower wing-coverts, are pale bluish-grey ; the
middle and hind part of the back of the same colour, more
tinged with blue. The anterior dorsal feathers, scapulars,
secondary coverts, and four rows of larger wing-coverts, are
dark brown, grey in their concealed parts, and narrowly mar-
gined with pale reddish-brown, or gTeyish-white. The pri-
maries are blackish-brown, the outer grey toward the base,
all with the shafts white ; the secondary quills brownish-black,
the inner dark brown, grey toward the base ; the middle tail
feathers are dark grey, with narrow white margins, the white
gradually increases on the rest, enlarging more on their inner
webs, so that the outer is entirely of that colour ; the breast
is faintly barred, the edges of the feathers being paler ; on
the sides, under the wings, the feathers are greyish-brown,
edged with pale grey ; the tibial feathers are pale grey ; and
on the breast are two or three feathers which are black to-
ward the end.

Length to end of tail, 33 inches ; extent of wings, 64 ;
bill, along the ridge, 2^, along the edge of lower mandible,
2^, its height at the base, Ij, breadth just behind the unguis,
i-i ; wing, from flexure, 17-i- ; tail, 5-1- ; tarsus, 3 ; hind toe,
-Lf, its claw, -fV; second toe, 1^, its claw, i; third toe, 3,^-,
its claw, ^ ; fourth toe, 2]^, its claw, -^.

Female. — The female is considerably smaller, but other-
wise similar.

Habits. — Whatever may have been the case formerly,
Avhen it was said to be very abundant, and permanently resi-
dent in England, this species is not now of common occur-
rence in any part of Britain, and does not remain to breed
with us. In Ireland it "is of occasional but rare occurrence
in winter." Not being able to distinguish it at a distance
from the Bean and Short-billed Geese, I can say nothing re-
specting its peculiar liabits, and, for the same reason, even
those which are conmion to it and them, cannot be spoken of
with certainty. However, this much may be said : — It makes

THICK-BILLED GREY GOOSE. 093

its appearance in various parts of the country toward the be-
^inninj^ of winter, and dcjjarts in the end of April. It resorts,
not to niarsliy places only, but to open pastures and cultivated
fields ; its food consisting of the root-stems of aquatic passes,
younjif corn, clover, and other green herbage. Ik'ing very
shy and vigilant, it is not easily shot, and when feeding in
the fields, on the alarm being given by some individual, they
all erect their necks, run forward, and uttering their loud
grating cries, spring into the air. Their flight is rather
heavy and sedate, performed at a great height, when they are
proceeding to a distance, the birds on such ocaasions ad-
vancing in a line, or in tAvo lines forming an acute angle.
The flesh of this species is savoury, having a higher flavour
than that of the tame Goose ; but it is not often seen in our
markets, the " Common " Goose of which is the next species.
According to M. Temminck, it " inhabits the seas, coasts,
and marshes of the eastern countries ; seldom advances
northward beyond the fifty-third degree ; is abundant in
Germany and tOAvards the centre of Europe ; and occurs only
on its migrations, and in very small numbers, in Holland
and France." It has not been met with in any part of Ame-
rica."

Remarks. — By the older writers, this species was con-
founded with the two next. The three are so very similar
in plumage, that, until one has compared specimens of them,
it is not easy to determine them separately. The present
may, however, be known by its much larger bill, wliich is
flesh-coloured, with its imguis whitish.

The connnon Domestic Goose appears to be the civilized
offspring of the Grey Goose, to which, in bulk and propor-
tion, it bears the same relations as other tame animals to
their prototypes : as a short-horned ox to a Devonshire ox, or
a domestic drake to a mallard. INIr. Yarrell is of opinion that
the White-fronted Goose has concurred with the Grev Lag:
in producing our domestic race. It is impossible to say what
proportion it bears to the other species in Scotland ; but that
it occurs there is certain, for in the end of September 1843, I
inspected three specimens from Dee-side, in the Aberdeen

p P

594 ANSER FERUS.

market, and have also seen it in the Edinburgh market in
winter and spring. Mr. St. John represents Wild Geese as
very numerous in the lower parts of Morayshire; but he does
not appear to distinguish between this and the Bean Goose.
In the Natural History of Orkney, it is stated that " Wild
Geese of this species visit Orkney every winter, but not in
great numbers. They always leave in spring, and have never
been known to breed. Others occasionally touch here in
spring, during their journey north.

696

ANSER SEGETUM. THE NARROW-BILLED GREY

GOOSE.

VnLD GOOSE. BEAN GOOSE. SMAXL GREY GOOSE.

Anas Anser. Linn. Sys. Nat. I. 197.

Anas scgctum. Lath. Ind. Om. IL 843.

L'Oye Sauvage. Anser Sylvestris. Briss. Omith. VL 265.

Bean Goose. Mont. Om. Diet.

Oie Tulgaire ou sauvage. Anas segetnm. Temm. Man. d'Om. IIL

Anser scgetum. Temm. Man. d'Orn. IV. 517.

Bean Goose. Anser Ferus. Selb. Illustr. IL 263.

Anser scgetum. Bean Goose. Jen. Brit. Vert, Anim. 222,

Anser segetum. Bonap. Comp. List, 55.

Male thirty inches long ; hill moderately thick, nearly as
long as the head, two inches and a third in length, and an
inch and tioo twelfths in height at the base, nine twelfths in
breadth behind the circular unguis, yellowish-orange, with the
base and unguis black ; tarsus three inches long, dull orange-
yellow ; the icings longer than the tail; feathers of the neck
linear-oblong, disposed in ridges; head and neck greyish-
broxon ; upper parts dark brown and grey, barred xcith the
whitish tei'minal margins of the feathers ; hind part of back
blackish-brown ; lower parts pale broicnish-grey, becoming
white behind. Female similar, but smaller. Young icith the
upper parts darker, the head and neck of a lighter brown, three
small patches of tchite feathers at the base of the bill.

Male in Winter. — This species is in most respects very
similar to the last, from which it differs in being somewhat
smaller, in having the bill more slender, although not much
shorter, the hind part of the back dark brown, and in other
particulars noted in the specific character. The body is very
bulky, the neck long and slender, the head oblong, much
compressed.

596 ANSER SEGETUM.

The bill, similar in form to that of the last species, but
smaller, is about the length of the head, higher than broad at
the base ; the upper mandible -svith the ridge broad and rather
convex at the base, gradually narrowed and convex towards the
end, tenninated by a circular convex unguis, the dorsal line
sloping on the unguis, arcuato-decurvate, the sides sloping,
the edges slightly arched, marginate, with twenty -four oblique
lamella?, of which the outer ends are dentiform and rather
acute ; the lower mandible with the intercrural space rather
narrow, rounded anteriorly, extending nearly to the unguis,
which is smaller and less convex than the upper, the lower
outline of the crura a little convex, their sides rounded, the
edges sloping inwards, and having about forty lamellcc.

The nostrils are medial, lateral, longitudinal, oblong,
pervious in the anterior and lower part of the narrow oblong
nasal space, Avhich is covered by membrane, and parallel to
the ridge. The eyes are small, their aperture being four-
twelfths. The legs rather short and strong ; the tibia bare
for about eight-twelfths of an inch ; the tarsus compressed,
covered all round with angular scales, of which the anterior
are sub-hexagonal, flat, with a small central prominence, the
posterior rhomboidal. The first toe is very small and free,
the anterior toes large, the third considerably longer than the
fourth, the second shorter than the latter; the middle toe
with thirty narrow scutella extending to near the base, the
inner with eighteen, the outer twenty-eight scutella. The
margin of the inner expanded, thin, somewhat two-lobed, the
iuterdi^rital membranes with roundish scales. The claws are
short, strong, slightly curved, obtuse, that of the middle toe
dilated internally, and rounded.

The feathers of the head are very small and short, oblong,
rounded, and blended ; of the upper part of the neck small,
linear-oblong, imbricated, and arranged in lines so as to pre-
sent deep intervening grooves ; the feathers of the fore part
of the back and wings very close, large, broad, abrupt, and
curved ; the scapulars very large ; the feathers of the hind
part of the back smaller, flatter, rounded at the end, and less
close ; those of the breast ovate, rather small, of the sides
very large and abrnpt. The wings are broad, and rather

NARROW-BILLED GREY GOOSE. «97

long, extending, when closed, a little beyond the tail ; tlic
quills twenty-six ; the second primary longest, tlic first half
an inch shorter, and with the tliird slightly cut out externally.
the first and second cut out toward the end internally ; the
secondaries broad, the outer abruptly rounded ; the humerals
ten, narrow, and rounded. The tail is very short, direct,
rounded, of sixteen broad, rounded feathers, the lateral an
inch shorter than the medial.

The bill is orange, with the unguis of both mandibles, the
basal half of the lower, and the ridge of the upper, with a
streak on each side as far as the nostrils, black. The iris
hazel. The feet dull orange-yellow, the claws dusky. The
head and neck are greyish-brown ; the fore neck and breast
gradually shaded with pale wood-brown, the latter fading
into greyish-white ; the hind part of the abdomen, and lower
tail-coverts, the sides of the rump, and the upper tail-coverts,
white. The feathers of the fore part of the back, the scapu-
lars, and the wing-coverts, are deep greyish brown, narrowly
edged with brownish-white ; those of the middle and hind
part of the back blackish-brown. The edge of the wing and
the primary coverts are ash-gi-ey, the outer secondary coverts
tinged with the same, and terminally margined with greyish-
white. The primaries are blackish-brown, the outer grey
toward the base, all with the shafts Avliite ; the secondary
quills brownish-black, the inner dark brown, grey toward the
base. The tail feathers gi-eyish-brown, tipped with white,
the lateral almost entirely Avhite. The large feathers of the
sides, under the wings, are gi-eyish-brown, margined with
pale brownish-grey ; the lower wing-coverts purplish-brown.

The mouth is an inch and two-twelfths in width. The
anterior palate concave, with two lateral rows of close-set,
strong, blunted protuberances, between each of which rows
and the marginal series of lamellae of its own side is a distinct
groove, into which the marginal lamellae of the lower jaw
enter. Besides these rows, there are on the arched roof five
rows of small, short, conical, distantly set, hard protuberances.

Length to end of tail, 31 inches ; extent of wings, 64 ;
wing, from flexure, I83 ; tail, 5^ ; bill along the ridge, 2jV,
along the ridge of lower mandible, 2-^, its height at the base,

598 ANSER SEGETUM.

l-jSj, its breadth behind the unguis, ■^; tarsus, 3-^; hind
toe, -j^, its claw, -^ ; second toe, -^, its claw, -^ ; third toe,
3, its claw, y'v ; fourth toe, 2-L|, its claw, ^.

Female. — The female is similar to the male, but smaller .

Variations, — The diflferences in the colours of the plu-
mage are not remarkable. The bill varies in ha^•ing the
black at its base more or less extended. I have a specimen
in which none remains unless on the ridge, as far as the
nostrils. It appears that the orange colour is more extended
the older the individual is.

Habits. — This species occurs in various parts of Britain
during the winter and spring, and in Ireland " is a regular
winter visitant." It does not breed in any part of England,
or in the southern and middle divisions of Scotland. In
the outer Hebrides, however, flocks are seen in summer and
autumn. I find by one of my journals that, in 1819, I ex-
amined four individuals that had been shot by my uncle's
shepherd in the small island of Copay, on the west coast of
Hams, where I have often in autumn gathered the quills
that had been shed by them, as they fed undisturbed on the
rich pasturage. But, although I have been informed that
they breed on several islands there, especially on Gasker,
which is farther out in the ocean, and a favourite resort of
seals, I never found its nest, or met Avith unfledged young.
In early autumn, when the barley begins to ripen, flocks
commit great havock among it in unfrequented places, often
at night, but mostly at early dawn. It is almost impossible
to approach them while thus feeding, however irregular the
ground may be, as they sec at night much better than their
enemy. In the end of autumn, when they often feed at
night in the pools and shallow lakes, I have often tried to
steal upon them in the dark ; but, although creeping among
sand-banks, never succeeded. Once, when, after long crawl-
ing in the most cautious manner, I got within what I con-
ceived to be the proper distance, hearing the geese puddling
in the water before me, I let fly into the thickest part of the

NARROW-BILLED GREY GOOSE. 699

flock, on which they flew off" in haste, uttering their loud
trumpet-like cries. Rushing into the water, gun in hand,
to secure my prizes, I found that I had shot into the midst
of some tall weeds, which I had mistaken for the geese. A
worse mistake was made by a man in Harris, who, hearing
the geese on the marsh of Nisbost close to his house, went
out in the dark, and having shot across a narrow creek
where he conceived them to be, returned. In the daAvn,
when he went to pick up the geese, he found dead on the
opposite bank his own horse, which had been reposing
there.

From my own observation I have little more to say of
the Bean or Com Geese than that they sit lightly on the
water, floating beautifully with their heads to the wind, like
a fleet of merchantmen ; swim with good speed ; but rise
heavily, striking the water with their large wings, which,
when rising from the ground, they spread out and flap,
running forward some paces ; that they feed chiefly by
night, unless in remote places, eating the soft pasture-grass,
and frequently the long juicy root-stems of agrostrides, gly-
cerise, and arundines that occur in the pools and by the
margins of lakes ; that their flight is heavy and rather slow,
the birds disposing themselves in lines, now straight, now
angular, or waving, when they are proceeding to a distance ;
and that their loud cries, rather harsh and grating when
heard at hand, are pleasant to the ear when coming from a
distance, especially in the stillness of night. In the begin-
ning of winter most of them leave those northern isles ; but
I have seen them there until as late as Christmas, and am
informed that many remain in South Uist all the year.

In the eastern and southern parts of Scotland they
appear in October, betaking themselves to particular locali-
ties, generally open pastures or large fields. There they
feed on grass, young wheat, clover, and other plants. In
March and April they visit the ncAvly-ploughed fields to
pick up the oat-seed, beans, pease, and roots of Potentilla
anserina, and various grasses. It is tantalizing on such
occasions to see them so far from any wall or bush, and so
vigilant, as to be quite secure. Although flocks remain in

eOO ANSER SEGETUM.

the south of Scotland all the winter, these birds are much
more numerous there in spring ; and great numbers are
brought to the markets in March and April, -when they are
on their Avay northward.

Vast numbers frequent the Montrose Basin in ■winter,
betaking themselves to the water by day, and feeding in the
fields at night. All over the extended plain country stretch-
ing from the Tay to Inverness flocks are to be met with here
and there from October to April, but in much greater
number at the periods of the autumnal and vernal migra-
tions. In the large open fields they there feed mostly by
day, at night betaking themselves to marshy places or to
estuaries. In the Bay of Findhorn multitudes are seen
coming from the surrounding country to repose at night.
Early in the morning they betake themselves to the fields,
where they feed until evening if not disturbed. It thus
appears that their habits vary in dificrent circumstances, at
least as to the times of repose and feeding. They are very
cautious in alighting, and fly over and around the intended
place several times, imtil, observing nothing suspicious, they
come down irregularly, usually run together, stand for some
time with their necks erected, and then disperse or proceed
in a line, an individual always acting as sentinel or observer,
and giving instant warning of danger, instantly responded
to by all the members of the flock, which come running up
to him, and after satisfying themselves as to the cause of
alarm, fly ofl" or resume their previous occupation.

As this species has been confounded with the next, I
think little more can be said respecting its habits; for I
must refrain from following the example of those who, with-
out having seen a Goose's nest, or alluding to any one who
has, describe both it and the eggs as minutely as those of a
Sparrow or Chaflinch.

Mr. Selby, however, has, in his account of the quadrupeds
and birds observed by him in Sutherland in the summer of
1834, furnislied some very acceptable information on this
subject : — " We were agreeably surprised to find that the
Ikan-Goose annually breeds upon several of the Sutherland
lakes. The first intimation we received of this interesting

NARROW-BILLED GREY GOOSE. 60t

fact was at Lairg, where we were informed that a few pairs
bred upon some islands about twelve miles up Loch Shin.
We accordingly took boat the following morning, and upon
arriving at the place discovered a single pair, attended by
four or five young goslings. None were obtained, as the old
birds^ being wild, escaped seemingly uninjured, although
repeatedly fired at ; and the goslings immediately dived, and
escaped into the reeds and other herbage. Upon Loch
Naver we also found several pairs attended by their young,
seemingly about a fortnight or three weeks old, one of
which, after a severe chase, we procured. Upon the islands
of Loch Laighal from thirty to forty pairs, Ave were in-
formed, annually had their nests. We saw several old birds
and the nests that had been used, which are concealed in
heath upwards of three feet in height that covers the islands.
The eggs were all hatched, and most of the young had
betaken themselves to the neighbouring moors, where they
continue till able to fly, secreting themselves, when dis-
turbed, in the highest heather. At Tongue we saw some
goslings about a month old (following a hen), which had
been hatched from eggs taken at Loch Laighal. We were
told that they became nearly as tame as common Geese, but
refuse to intermix or breed with them. The eggs, from five
to seven in number, are smaller than those of the common
Goose, but of a similar shape and colour." Mr. St. John
also mentions their breeding in Loch Shin, and other lonely
and unfrequented pieces of water in Sutherland.

YorxG. — The young in winter have the head and neck
of a lighter tint, approaching to yello^^'ish-grey ; the feathers
there of a softer texture, almost silky, w ith numerous small
bristle plimielets projecting on the cheeks. There are three
narrow, semilunar, white spots at the base of the upper
mandible, the small feathers there being of that colour, and
those immediately behind them dark brown ; so that one,
not attending to the form of the bill, might imagine them to
be the young of the White-fronted Goose. The upper parts
are darker than in the adult, and the lower less white.

602

ANSER BRACHYRHYNCHUS. THE SHORT-
BILLED GREY GOOSE.

WILD GOOSE. FINK-FOOTED GOOSE.

" Anser brachyrhynchus. Baill. Mem. de la Soc. d'Emiil. d' Abbeville, 1833."
Oie k bee court. Anser brachyrhyncliuB. Temm. Man. d'Om. IV. 520.

31ale ticenty-eight inches long ; hill (comparatitely) very
small, shorter than the head, nearly tivo inches in length, an
inch and two-tic el fths in height at the base, seven-and-a-half -
twelfths in breadth behind the unguis, bright carmine , with the
broadly elliptical unguis, and the base of both mandibles black ;
the tarsus two inches and a half long, pale purplish pitik-
colour ; the wings a little longer than the tail ; feathers
of the neck linear-oblong, disposed in ridges ; head and neck
greyish-brown ; upper parts ash-grey, barred icith the whitish
terminal margins of the feathers ; hind part of back deep ash-
grey ; lower parts pale grey , becoming white behind. Female
similar to the male, but smaller. Young with the upper parts
brownish-grey, barred with broivnish-white ; the lower hind-
neck reddish-brown, the loiccr parts more grey.

Male in "Winter. — If tlie name of " Grey Goose " could
with propriety be claimed by any one of our three Grey
Geese, it is this species to which it ought to be given, it
having more grey on the upper parts than even the thick-
billed Goose. It is scarcely inferior in size to the Bean Goose,
with which it has generally been confounded, although easily
distinguishable by its small and differently coloured bill. In
its general form and proportions it closely resembles the two
species above-named, having the body very large and full, the
neck long and slender, the head rather small, ovatc-oblong,
compressed, and much rounded above.

SHORT-BILLED GREY GOOSE. 603

The bill is shorter than the head, higher than broad at

the base, tapering rajjidly toward the end, -where it is more
depressed than in the other species ; the upper mandible with
the ridge broad and flattened at the base, rapidly narrowed
and convex toward the end, terminated by a broadly elliptical
very convex unguis, the dorsal line rapidly sloping, on the
unguis arcuato-decurvate, the sides sloping, the edges mode-
rately arcuate, marginate, with twenty-four flattened lamina^,
of which the outer ends are dentiform, and little prominent ;
the lower mandible with the intercrural space anteriorly
pointed, extending nearly to the unguis, which is of the same
form as the upper, but much smaller ; the lower outline of
the crura considerably convex, anteriorly ascending and rather
concave, their sides rounded, the edges sloping inwards, with
forty-five lamella), of which the dentiform tips are small and
rounded.

The roof of the mouth is concave, with five longitudinal
series of flattened tubercles. The tongue is fleshy, rather
narrow, convex and grooved above, at the base with a slender
papilla, a large double papilla on each side, and several
smaller ; the lateral margins with slender, flattened, acumi-
nate, horny, reversed papillce ; the tip thin, concave, and
horny. The width of the mouth is an inch and a twelfth.

The nostrils are linear-oblong, three-twelfths and a quarter
in length, about the middle of the bill, in the anterior and
lower part of the oblong-elliptical nasal space, which is
covered by membrane, and parallel to the ridge. The eyes
are small, their aperture three-twelfths and a half; that of
the ear nearly three-twelfths. The legs are short and strong ;
the tibia bare for half an inch ; the tarsus compressed, covered
with hexagonal scales, of which the anterior are larger, flat,
with a small central circular prominence ; the hind toe is
very small and elevated, with four scutella ; the second with
fourteen, the third with twenty-five, the fourth with sixteen
scutella ; the fourth nearly as long as the third ; the second
•with a thin expanded two-lobed margin ; the outer interdigital
membrane emarginate, the inner even. The claws are short,
moderately arched, compressed, obtuse, that of the middle toe
internally expanded, and rounded at the end.

GM AXSER BRACK YRHYNCHUS.

The feathers of the head are ver\- small and oblong ; of
the upper part of the neck linear-oblong, rather acute, imbri-
cated, and arranged in lines so as to present deep intervening
grooves ; of the fore part of the back, scapulars, and ■vvings,
very close, large, broad, and abrupt ; the scapulars very large ;
the feathers of the hind part of the back smaller, flatter,
oblong, and rounded ; those of the lower part of the neck and
fore part of the breast large and broadly rounded, of the sides
still larger and more abrupt, of the rest of the lower parts
gi-adually smaller and oblong. The wings are broad and
rather long, extending about half an inch beyond the end of
the tail ; the quills twenty-seven ; the humerals eight, narrow,
and rounded ; the second primary is longest, the first half an
inch shorter ; the first and second cut out on the inner web,
the second and third on the outer; the secondaries broadly
rounded, the inner elongated. The tail is very short, direct,
rounded, of sixteen broad, rounded feathers, of which the
lateral are an inch shorter than the medial.

The ridge, nasal spaces, and a portion of the sides at the
base of the upper mandible are black, that colour terminating
anteriorly with three rounded points ; more than half of the
lower mandible, and the unguis of both, also black ; the
space not thus coloured is bright carmine. The iris is brown.
The feet are pale lake, or purplish pink ; the claAvs black,
bluish-grey at the base, the outer with a white ridge. The
head and neck are brown, the latter of a lighter tint, gradu-
ally becoming paler, at its lower part above changing to red-
dish-brown ; the breast greyish-white, or faintly barred with
pale gi'ey and greyish-white, with a tinge of broAvn anteriorly;
the large feathers of the sides ash-grey, with tAVO tenninal
narrow bars, the inner light brown, the outer grey ; the
inner margins of the upper white ; the feathers of the tibise
light ash-grey. The abdomen, sides of the rump, and lower
tail-coverts pure white. The axillars and lower wing-coverts
ash-grey. All the upper parts of the body are ash-grey, as
are the Aving-coverts, which are of a much lighter tint, while
the hind part of the back is darker. The feathers of the back
and the scapulars have two narrow terminal bars, the inner
brown, the outer white. The secondary coverts are rather

SHORT-BILLED GREY GOOSE. 606

largely tipped with white, the middle coverts narrowly, the
smaller coverts and primary coverts without Avhito. All the
quills have white shafts, and are greyish-black, but the
primaries are grey to some extent from the base, and the inner
secondaries tinged with brown, and narrowly margined exter-
nally with white. The sides of the rump and the upper tail-
coverts are white ; the tail feathers ash-grey, largely tipped
with white, that colour gradually enlarging from the middle
of the tail outwards.

The oesophagus is seventeen inches long, eleven-twelfths
in width until it reaches the furcula, when it contracts consi-
derably, but enlarges on entering the thorax, and from the
proventricular belt to the stomach has a width of an inch and
three-fourths. The proventriculus itself is an inch and a half
in external diameter, an inch and three-fourths in length.
The stomach is an extremely muscular gizzard, situated
obliquely, transversely oval, its breadth being three inches
and three-fourths, its length two inches ; the left muscle
an inch and ten-twelfths thick, the other an inch and a
half; the epithelium forming two very thick lemon-yellow
smoothish, somcAvhat concave plates, about an inch in dia-
meter. The intestine is five feet nine inches long, from nine-
twelfths to four-twelfths in breadth, arranged in thirteen folds;
the duodenum six inches to the first curve. The coeca are
nine inches and a half in length, their greatest width half an
inch. One of the lobes of the liver is three inches and three-
fourths in length, the others two inches and three-fourths.

Length to end of tail 28 inches ; extent of Avings 62 ;
wing from flexure 17^ ; tail 5f ; bill along the ridge l-j-L :
along the edge of lower mandible 1\^ ; its height at the base
1-^ ; its breadth behind the unguis ^ ; tarsus 2^ ; hind toe
-j^, its claws -f\-; second toe 1|^, its claw -^ ; third toe 2^,
its claw yV ; fourth toe 2^, its claw -^.

Another adult male, shot in February, 1835, had the bill
orange, tinged with carmine anterior to the nostrils and along
the edges to near the base of the upper mandible, the base
and unguis of both mandibles black. The eyes hazel. The
feet orange-red, tinged with carmine. The head and upper-
neck dark greyish-brown, the lower part pale yellowish-

606 ANSER BRACHYRHYXCHUS.

brown, the breast much paler and tinged with grey ; abdomen
and lower tail-coverts white, as are the sides of the body
behind, and the upper tail-coverts. The feathers of the sides
are dark ash-grey, the anterior terminally margined with light
yellowish-brown, the posterior with white. The feathers of
the fore part of the back and the scapulars are ash-grey, termi-
nally edged with brownish-white ; those of the hind part of
the back deep ash-grey. The wing-coverts, alula, and primary
coverts are light ash-grey, the former margined with white,
as are the secondary coverts, of which the inner are darker.
The primaries are grey at the base, greyish-black toward the
end ; the secondaries black, narrowly margined with white,
the inner five grey, more broadly margined. The tail feathers
are ash-grey, largely terminated, and narrowly edged with
white ; nearly the whole of the outer feathers of the latter
colour.

Length to end of tail 31 inches ; extent of wings 58 ; bill
along the ridge 2 ; along the edge of lower mandible 2^ ; wing
from flexure 18 ; tail 5|-; tarsus 2^; hind toe and claw-g-;
second toe and claw 2^ ; third toe and claw 3 ; fourth toe and
claw 2f .

Female. — The female is similar to the male, but smaller.

Length to end of tail 26 inches ; extent of wings 60 ; wing
from flexure 16| ; bill along the ridge l]-^ ; tarsus 2^ ; middle
toe 2^, its claw -^.

Variations. — Considerable variations occur as to size.
In adult birds the plumage varies little, the tints being merely
a little darker or lighter. Frequently there are some white
feathers close upon the base of the upper mandible in adult
as well as young birds. The bill varies in tint from bright
carmine to purplish-red, and the black at its base is of vari-
able extent, sometimes being confined to the ridge of the
upper and the basal part of the lower mandible ; the unguis
always remaining of a black tint. The colour of the feet is
bright carmine, or carmine with an orange tint, or purplish-
red. The claws have more or less greyish-blue, or whitish,
at the base.

SHORT-BILLED GREY GOOSE. 607

Habits. — As this species has by some been confounded
with the Anser segetum, and by others entirely overlooked,
very little can be said of its habits or distribution. It has
been met with in various parts of England, and not very
uncommonly in the south of Scotland, it being frequently
seen in the Edinburgh market. The first specimen described
above as an adult male was shot about the 20th of November,
1840 ; the second was killed in 1835 ; but it is more fre-
quently obtained in February and March, as is the case with
both the other species. Two specimens in the Montrose
Museum were shot in the neighbourhood of that town, and I
have seen it in winter in Aberdeen market.

INIr. John MacGillivray, in his notes on the Zoology of
the Outer Hebrides, published in the Annals and Magazine
of Natural History, vol. viii., p. 13, has the following very
instructive notice respecting this species : — " The Pink-footed
or Short-billed Goose breeds in great numbers in the small
islands of the Sound of Harris, as well as those of the interior
of North Uist. This bird was seen in flocks so late as the
beginning of May, was observed in pairs among the islands
in the sound about the middle of the month, and had the
young fully fledged and strong upon wing about the end of
July ; it had again collected into flocks by the beginning of
August, for late in the night of the 8th of that month, as
I was riding in great haste towards the ferry-boat for Ber-
neray, while crossing the sandy margin of a shallow pool, I
came suddenly upon a flock of Geese, amounting to several
hundreds, judging from their cries, which startled my horse,
and, I may add, myself also."

My friend, Mr. Thomas Jamieson, who has favoured me
with a list of birds observed by him in Skye,in 1850, makes the
following statement : — " Pink-footed Goose. I shot a Goose
in the month of April, out of a party of six that had frequented
a locality on Monkstadt for some time. It turned out on
examination to belong to this species, and not to be a Bean
Goose. On the farm of Monkstadt there was once a shallow
lake, now imperfectly drained by open ditches, which used to
be frequented during winter by great numbers of Swans,
Geese, and Ducks, of various descriptions. Throughout the

608 ANSER BRACHYRHYNCHUS.

winter a few Geese may still haunt the spot, and a stray Duck
or two, but no Swans. They, on the year it was dried up,
are said to have come and hung over the well-kno^vn spot,
uttering melancholy cries, and then sailed slowly away to
seek some as yet undisturbed [ilacid lake, where they might
rest their wing unmolested by any drainage speculations ; and
it is thought that it would have been as well for his Lord-
ship's purse to-day if he had turned his cash to some other
improvements and let the Swans float still on the bosom of
St. Columba's Loch. Geese come to the islands of Ascrib
and Fladda in the autumn, before they arrive in Skye, settling
in gi-eat numbers to feed on the gTass of those unfrequented
spots. The first Geese I saw in autumn were on the 24th of
Sei)tember, when I saw about half a dozen, but observed no
large flock pass until the beginning of October. They breed
in Uist, I was informed by those who had seen them there."

Remarks. — Among the various distinctions between the
Bean Goose and the Short-billed, is a very remarkable one
derived from the knobs on the roof of the upper mandible ;
the foiTner having five series besides the two lateral rows sepa-
rated each by a deep groove from the marginal series of
lamella? ; whereas the latter has only three series of knobs,
besides the two lateral roAvs of shorter and more flattened
knobs, separated each by a very shallow groove from the
marginal lamellae.

In a paper read to the Zoological Society, on the 11th
December, 1838, INIr. Bartlctt first distinguishes this species as
British, giving it the name of Anser phoenicopus, Pink-footed
Goose. I think the dimensions which he gives are rather small,
for, although I have seen a specimen which measured only
twenty-eiglit inches in length, fifty-four in extent of wing,
with the bill an inch and three-fourths along the ridge, yet
the average size is larger ; and to give the smallest measure-
ment in one case, and the largest in the other, is apt to mis-
lead the student. The shorter and much more slender bill of
the present species, shorter and proportionally thicker tarsi,
aud ash-grey instead of dark-brown rump, enable one at once
to distinguish it from the Bean Goose.

600

ANSER ALBIFRONS. Till-: WHITE-FRONTED
GOOSE.

LAUGIIISG GOOSE. BALD GOOSE.

Anas erythropus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 197.

Anas albifrous. Gmcl. Syst. Nat. I. 509.

Anas albitVons. Lath. liid. Ornith. IT. 812.

AVhite-frontud Guose. Mont. Oinith. Diet.

Anas albifrous. Oie rieuse ou a front blanc. Temm. Man. d'Orn. IL 821.

Oio rieuse. .iVnser albifrons. Temm. Man. III. 518.

"White-fronted Wild Goose. Anser erythropus. Selby, Illustr. II. 266.

Anser albifrons. White-fronted Goose. Jenyns, Brit. Vert. Anim. 223.

Anscr albifrons. Bouap. Comp. List. 55.

Male twenty-eight inches long; hill thick, short, an- inch
and two-thirds in length, an inch in height at the base, car-
mine red, loith the unguis white; tarsus three iyiches long,
bright orange-red, the elates tvhitish ; the wings longer than
the tail ; feathers of the 7ieck linear-oblong, disposed in ridges;
head and neck gregish-brown ; forehead white, with a black
band behind; npper parts browtiish-greg, barred with the
zchitish terminal margins of the feathers; hind part of hack
deep grey; loicer parts pale greyish-ichite, irregularly patched
xcith black, and beco?ning jmre tchite behind. Femcde siinilar
to the male, but smaller. Young with the upper parts darker,
the head and neck of a lighter brown, the tchite band on the
forehead eery narrow, and tinged with orange.

M.\LE IN Winter, — This, which is considerably inferior
in size to our other species, has, like them, the body large
and full, the neck long and slender, the head rather small,
oblong, and compressed.

Tiie bill is shorter than the head, much higher than
broad at the base ; the upper mandible with the ridge broad

Q Q

610 ANSER ALBIFRONS.

and flattened, but prescutly narrowed and convex, the dorsal
line sloping to the unguis, which is circular, convex, and
decurved ; the sides sloping ; the edges arched, niarginate,
■with twenty-eight oblique lamella?, of which the outer ends
are dentiform and triangular ; the lower mandible with the
intercriiral space long and rather narrow, the lower outline
of the crura a little convex, the edges sloping inwards, and
having about forty lamellte.

The nostrils are medial, lateral, longitudinal, narrow-
elliptical, four-twelfths long, pervious, in the anterior and
lower part of the oblong nasal space, which is covered by
membrane, and parallel to the ridge. The eyes arc small,
their aperture three-twelfths. The legs are rather short and
strong ; the tibia bare for half-an-inch ; the tarsus com-
pressed, covered all round with sub-hexagoual scales, of
which the anterior are larger. The first toe is very small
and free, the third longest, the fourth little shorter; the
anterior scaly on the first joint, scutellate in the rest of their
extent, the outer wntli a thick margin, the inner edged with
a thin two-lobed expansion ; the outer intcrdigital membrane
emarginate, the inner straight on the edge. The claws are
small, arcuate, rather compressed, obtuse, that of the middle
toe dilated internally and rounded.

The feathers of the head and upper neck are very narroAv,
on the latter disposed into ridges and grooves ; those of the
fore part of the back aiul wings large, broad, abrupt, and
curved ; the scapulars very large ; of the hind part of the
back smaller, fiatter, ovate, and less close ; of the breast
ovate and rather small ; of the sides very large, much curved,
abruptly terminated. The wings are broad and rather long,
extending a little beyond the tail, of twenty-six quills ; the
second primary longest, the first a quarter of an inch shorter ;
the first and second cut out on the inner m eb, the second
and third (ui th(> outer ; the secondaries broad and rounded,
tlie inner elongated. Tlie tail is very sliort, rounded, of
sixteen broad, rounded feathers, the lateral an inch shorter
than the medial.

The bill is orange-carmine, with both tlie ungues white*
The iris hazel, the edges of the eyelids orange. The feet

WHITE-FRO-NTEl) GOOSE. 611

arc orange-red, tlu- claws gicyish-wliiti.'. The head and
neck arc greyish-brown, the; upper part oi the former of a
darker tint, becoming black anteriorly, that colour forming
a line:, anterior to which the feathers arc white on the fore-
head. The general colour of the back is deep brownish-
grey, the feathers of its fore part terminally nuirginetl with
brownish-grey; those of its hind part pure dark grey. The
smaller coverts toward the edge of the wing, and the primary,
are light ash-grey ; the other coverts are brownish-grey,
edged with white. The basal part of several of the outer
primaries is ash-grey, tlu' rest greyish-black, the secondaries
black, the shafts of all the quills white ; the fore part of the
ueck is light greyish-brown, tlic breast is of a paler tint
jjassing into greyish-white, but irregularly i)atchcd with
black ; the feathers of the sides grey, terminally margined
•with brown and white ; the hind part, sides of the rump,
and up])er tail-covcrts pure white. The tail-feathers are
brownish-grey, broadly tipped with white, that colour in-
creasing from the middle outwards.

Length to end of tail 28 inches ; extent of wings 54 ;
wing from flexure IT; tail 5^; bill along the ridge 1^%,
along the edge of lower mandible 1^3^ ; tarsus 3 ; third toe 3,
its claw YV*

Female. — The female is similar to the male, but smaller.

Variations. — Individuals differ considerably in size, as
well as in colour. On the upper parts of the body brown
soiaetimes prevails over grey, and sometimes the reverse ;
and on the breast the black transverse patches, usually large
and numerous, are sometimes reduced to a few. The white
on the fore part of the head also varies in extent, and is
sometimes tinged with orange or brown.

Habits. — The White-fronted Goose makes its appearance
with us in the end of Octt)ber, disperses over the country,
remains all Avinter, and departs about the beginning of
April. Its habits are similar to those of the other species,
but have not been studied with sufficient care. Montagu

612 AXSER ALBBIFROXS.

states that he " found this species in general more plentiful
than the Bean Goose. It visits the fenny parts of this
country in small flocks in -winter ; is killed on the coast, as
well as on our rivers, in severe weather ; and not uncom-
monly brought to market and sold for the common Wild
Goose." Mr. Sclby says, " it varies from the Bean Goose in
preferring low and marshy districts to the upland and drier
haunts of that bird, and in these localities subsists on the
aquatic grasses, being very seldom seen to frequent corn or
stubble-fields. A specimen sent to me (and which was killed
near Alnwick, in Northumberland) had its stomach gorged
with the tender shoots and leaves of the common clover
(Trifolium pratense), upon which it was feeding on the
breaking up of a severe snow-storm."

I believe little more can be said as to its distribution in
Europe than that in Avinter it is dispersed over the temperate
parts, and in summer betakes itself to the regions bordering
on the arctic circle. It occurs equally in America, where in
winter it advances as far as the Gulf of Mexico, and in
spring was seen by Dr. Richardson travelling over the fur
countries at the same time as the Snow Geese, but in sepa-
rate flocks. lie states that they breed in the woody districts
skirting Mackenzie's River, to the north of latitude sixty-
seven degrees, as mcII as on the islands of the arctic sea.
According to Mr. Audubon, the eggs are dull yellowish-
green, with indistinct patches of a darker tint of the same
coloiu', their length two inches and three quarters, their
breadth an inch and three quarters.

According to Messrs. Baikie and Heddle it is an occa-
sional winter Adsitant in Orkney, and not so rare there as
the Bean Goose. Mr. St. John informs us that the White-
fronted Goose makes its appearance in the lower parts of
INIorayshire at an earlier period than the other species. It
is never seen there, he says, in large flocks, but in small
companies of from eight or nine to twenty birds ; appears to
be wholly graminivorous ; and, when undisturbed, usually
rests at night in any grass field where it may have been
feeding in the afternoon, whereas the Grey Goose betakes
itself every night to Findhorn Bay. I have seen a specimen

WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE. 613

sliot in the neip^hbourhood of Aberdeen, in the end of
September, 1843 ; another in the Dundee Museum, shot on
the estuary of the Tay, and it is mentioned by Mr. MoHson
in the list of birds that frequent the Montrose liasin in
Avinter. Mr. Thompson states that it " is a regujar winter
visitant to Ireland."

Remarks. — It is clear enough that this species is the
one named Anas erythropus, or lled-footed, by Linnicus. It
was subsequently, by Gmelin and Latham, named Anas
albifrons, or White-fronted ; and this name has been more
fre([uently used by hiter writers than the former. I retain it
because, altliougli erythropus is correct and has the priority,
it does not point to a character distinctive of the species,
" red-footed " applying equally, or iu some measure, to Anser
brachyrhynchus.

614

AXSER CANADENSIS. THE CANADA GOOSE.

CRAVAT GOOSE.

Anas Canadensis. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 198.

Anas Canadensis. Lath. Ind. Omith. IL 852.

Anser Canadensis. Flem. Brit. Anini. 128.

Cygnus Canadensis. Canada Swan. Jen. Brit. Tert. An. 227.

Canada Goose, .\nser Canadensis. Audub. Om. Biogr. III. 1 ; V. 607.

Anser Canadensis. Bonap. Comp. List. 55.

Male ahont forty-Uco inches long ; hill and feet black ;
head and Uco-thirds of the neck, all rotind, glossy black, as are
the rump and tail feathers ; a broad band of ivhite across the
throat, ascending to behind the eyes ; iipper liarts greyish-
brown ; wing-coverts ash-grey ; all the feathers margined
with pale brown ; lozccr pai'ts greyish-tchite ; sides pale
brotcnish-grey ; the feathers margined icith white ; abdomen
pure white.

Tuts species, -which in its form, and especially in the
elongation of its neck, somewhat resembles the Swans, and in
its colouring the Bernicles, is admitted into the British Fauna
with hesitation, because, as is alleged, many perfectly wild
individuals have been seen, and some shot, in various parts
of England, where, however, individuals are often kept in a
tame or semi-domesticated state. Its native countr}' is North
America ; and as many birds of that country occasionally
visit Britain, the Canada Goose may come at times as a
straggler, or winter visitant.

It is of larger size than the species already described ; with
the body bulky, rather elongated, and somewhat depressed;
the neck long and slender ; the head rather small, oblong,
romjiressod ; the bill shorter than the head, rather higher
than broad at the base, depressed toward the end, rounded at

CANADA GOOSE. 616

tlu- (i]) ; tlie marp^inal lamellae short, about thirty on each side
in l)()tli niaiulibli's ; the ii])pf'r unp,iiis obovatt', coiivox, (k'liti-
tulate oil the inner edy^e ; tlic lower unguis roundish, sliglitly
convex ; the feet short, stout, placed rather back ; the tarsi
reticulated ; the toes scutcllatc only toward the end ; the
claws small, arched, rather compressed.

The plumage is close, compact on the upper part, blended
on the neck and lower parts ; the wings, which arc of mode-
rate length, extend when closed to about an inch from the end
of the tail ; the second quill longest ; the tail very short,
rounded, of eighteen stiff, rounded, acuminate feathers.

The bill, feet, and claws, black. Head and two-thirds of
the neck, glossy black ; forehead, checks, and throat, tinged
■with brown ; a broad band of white across the throat to
behind the eyes ; lower eyelid white ; upper parts greyish-
broAvn, shaded with ash-grey on the wing-coverts ; all the
feathers margined with very pale brown ; rump and tail
black ; lower parts greyish-white ; the sides pale-brownish-
grey ; the feathers terminally margined with white ; abdomen
pure white ; as arc the sides of the rump and the upper tail-
coverts.

At page 607 of the fifth volume of Audubon's Ornitholo-
gical Biography, is a short account of the digestive and respi-
ratory organs, derived from the dissection of a specimen
l)rought from Boston. I have there shown that the stomach
and intestines differ in no essential respect from those of the
Swans ; that the sternum also is very similar ; that the
trachea " at first inclines a little to the left side, then on the
anterior concave curve of the neck passes gradually to the
right side, along which it proceeds as far as the lower part of
the convex curve, when it sejjarates in front from the neck,
and forms a loop or abrupt c\irve, which is attached to the
anterior part of the sternum, between the coracoid bones,
thus approximating to the trachea of the S^vans, but not
entering the crest of the sternum. It then passes directly
along the spine to behind the middle of the heart, where it
bifurcates. In this respect also it is singular, in being more
elongated than in the other species, of which the bifurcation
is considerablv anterior to the heart. At the commencement

616 ANSER CANADENSIS.

its breadth is six-twelfths ; presently after it enlarges to
eight-twelfths, then contracts to six-twelfths, and so continnes
until it begins to form the loop, on which its breadth is again
eight-twelfths ; after this it gradually tapers, so as to be only
two-and-a-half-twelfths wide at the inferior larynx, where its
depth, however, is live-twelfths. The form of that part is
much the same as in the Swans, there being a similar ele-
vated, bony, curved edge on each side, projecting beyond the
commencement of the membrane of the bronchus, which is
half an inch in length before the first ring appears. These
membranes form a pretty large sac of triangular form ; and
the continuation of the bronclius is extremely diminutive,
with only ten very small and slender cartilaginous half-rings.
The lateral muscles are large ; their anterior part gives off the
sterno-tracheal at the distance of 2j inches from the inferior
larynx ; but the posterior part, whicli is much larger, runs
down one inch farther, and then terminates in a pointed form,
not extending so far as to constitute an inferior laryngeal
muscle. The rings of the trachea are broad, very firm, con-
siderably flattened, 220 in nxmiber."

Length to end of tail 42 inches ; extent of wings (34 ; bill
2^ ; tarsus 3^ ; middle toe and claw 4^.

Female. — The female is considerably smaller, but resem-
bles the male in colouring.

Habits. — This species is represented by those who have
had opportunities of seeing it in the wild state, in its native
country, as occurring in gi-eat numbers, during the breeding
season, in tlie northern states of jS orth America, and especi-
ally in Labrador, and other desert tracts. In autumn they
migrate southward, and disperse in flocks all over the middle
and southern states. Their habits, however, present nothing
very remarkable, but are similar to those of other Geese, their
migrations being performed in lines varying in form, their
food consisting of grass, corn, and other herbage, and tbeir
nests bulky, and placed among rank grass or sedges, or under
a bush. It is, liowever, a bird of considerable importance to
the inhabitants of Arctic America. Its arrival in the fur

CANADA GOOSE. 617

countries, Dr. Richardson remarks, " is anxiously looked for,
and hailed with f^roat joy hy the natives of tl»e woody and
swani})y districts, who depend principally upon it for suhsist-
ence during the summer. It makes its first appearance in
flocks of twenty or thirty, which are readily decoyed within
gun-shot hy the hunters, who set up stuffed skins, and imi-
tate its call. Two or three, or more, are so frecpiently killed
at a shot, that the usual price of a Goose is a single charge of
amnuinition. One Goose which, when fat, weighs about
nine pounds, is the daily ration for one of the Company's
servants during the season, and is reckoned equivalent to two
Snow Geese, or three Ducks, or eight pounds of buffalo and
moose meat, or two pounds of pemmican, or a pint of maize
and four ounces of suet. About three weeks after their first
appearance, the Canada Geese disperse in pairs throughout
the country, between the 50th and 67th parallels, to breed,
retiring at the same time from the shores of Hudson's Bay.
They are seldom or never seen on the coasts of the Arctic
Sea. In July, after the young birds are hatched, the parents
moult, and vast numbers are killed in the rivers and small
lakes, when they are unable to fly. "When chased by a canoe
and obliged to dive frequently, they soon become fatigued and
make for the shore, with the intention of hiding themselves,
but as they are not fleet, they fall an easy prey to their pur-
suers. In the autumn they again assemble in flocks on the
shores of Hudson's Bay for three weeks or a month, previous
to their departure southwards. It has been observed, that in
their migration, the Geese annually resort to certain passes
and resting-places, some of which are frequented both in the
spring and autumn, and others only in spring. The Canada
Goose generally builds its nest on the ground, but some pairs
occasionally breed on the banks of the Saskatchewan in trees,
depositing their eggs in the deserted nests of ravens or fishing
eagles."

According to Mr. Audubon, when it remains to breed in
the United States, it begins to form its nest in ]March, con-
structing it carefully of dry plants of various kinds, and rais-
ing it to the height of several inches. The eggs are generally
about six, the greatest number nine. They are of a very dull

618 ANSER CANADENSIS.

yellowish-green colour, tliick-shelled, rather smooth, three
and a half inclics long, The period of incubation is twenty-
eight days. The young very soon accompany their parents to
the water, but pass the nights on land, under their mother.
The parents remain witli their brood mitil the following
spring.

ILnnng been long fostered in England, in some parts of
Avhich it is not uncommon in a tame or semi-domesticated
state, it is said occasionally to attempt a free life, and to roam
in small flocks ; sometimes, however, it appears perfectly
wild, and, possibly enough, individuals may occasionally mig-
rate into England. I am not aware of its havinp^ been met
with in a state of liberty anywhere in Scotland.

Giy

BERNICLA. BERNICLE GOOSE.

The Berniclos, or " Tree Geese," as they liave been
named from a foolish notion, long entertained by the learned
and not yet entirely renounced by the illiterate, of their
bein<T produced from a kind of shells adhering to trees or
Avood floating in the sea, differ little from the true Geese,
unless in having the head smaller, the Inll short and more
conical, the feathers of the neck not arranged into grooves
and ridges, those of the breast much larger, and in the pre-
dominance of black in their plumage, bills, and feet. From
Anser brachyrhynchus to Bernicla leucopsis, the transition
as to form in the head and bill is perhaps slight ; but so it
is from the genus Anser to several other genera, and, ac-
cording to the system of subdivision now generally adopted,
Ave can hardly avoid separating the Berniclcs from the Geese,
they being, I think, as different from them as the smaller
Gulls are from the larger, or Budytes from Motacilla.

The body is full, ovate, of nearly equal height and
breadth ; the neck long and slender ; the head small, oblong,
compressed.

Bill much shorter than the head, moderately stout,
straight, subconical, higher than broad at the base, narrowed
toward the end, where its breadth does not exceed its height ;
upper mandible with the lateral and superior basal margins
angular, the ridge broad and flattened for a short space at
the base, then convex, the dorsal line declinate and straight
to the unguis, which is round or broadly obovate, very
convex and much decurved, with a thin but strong edge,
the sides sloping and convex, the nasal space elliptical from
near the base to the middle, covered by the soft membrane
of the bill ; the edges soft, straight, denticulate with the
rounded outer ends of the lamellae, which are scarcely

620 BERXICLA. BERXICLE GOOSE.

apparent from without ; lower mandible with the intererural
space long, rather ■wide, and partially bare, the short dorsal
line convex, the crura rather narrow, their lower outline
straight, their sides sloping outwards and convex, the edges
elevated, inclinate, denticulate with the short outer extremi-
ties of the numerous lamellae; the unguis roundish and
moderately convex ; the gape-line straight, commencing under
the upper basal angle of the mandible.

Mouth of moderate width. Tongue, digestive organs,
and trachea as in the genus Anser.

Nostrils moderate, oblong, submedial. Eyes small, eye-
lids feathered, w'ith bare crcnulate margins. Aperture of
ear rather small. Feet rather short or moderate, strong,
placed well forward ; tibia bare for a very short space ;
tarsus moderately compressed, reticulated with small angular
scales. Toes as in the genus Anser, but with fewer scutella,
there being more of the basal space occupied with scales ;
membranes similar. Claws small, arcuate, rather depressed,
obtuse, that of the middle toe broadly rounded, and with its
inner edge expanded.

Plumage full, close, linn, very soft, and glossy. Feathers
of the head short, of the neck nan'ow, blended, and not dis-
posed into ridges ; those of the lower parts larger than in the
Geese ; but the plumage in other respects similar. Quills
twenty-eight, the second longest, the first slightly shorter.
Tail short, rounded, generally of sixteen broad, rounded
feathers.

The bill and feet are black, and that colour predominates
on the head and neck, as well as partially obtains on the
back ; the other principal colours are grey and white.

The Bernicles inhabit the temperate and cold climates of
both continents in winter, and in summer betake themselves
to the arctic regions, where they breed, forming their nests
of grass and other herbage in the marshes or on islands, and
laying numerous elliptical white or greenish eggs. They
are gregarious, like the Geese, which they resemble in their
habits, feeding like them on vegetable substances, but are
more strictly maritime, and derive the greater part of their
nourishment in winter from Zostera marina and Algie. They

BERNICLA. BERNICLE GOOSE. R21

are more active than the Geese, and their flesh is still more
highly esteemed.

To this genus belong the Canada Goose and Hutchins's
Goose of North America, as well as two species common to
it and Europi^ and which occur plentifully in Britain during
winter. Another species also has several times been met
with there.

Although the name Rernicla, first given by Mr. Stephens
to this genus, is barbarous, I feel unwilling to adopt another,
simply because I cannot find a better. The Anas Bernicla
of Linnscus seems to include both the Bernicle Goose and
Brent Goose of British authors ; and as some have taken
the former to be Anas erythropus of Linnaeus, while others
name it Auser leucopsis, and the Brent Goose Anser Ber-
nicla ; and as the extrication of all this confusion is worth
no one's while, seeing the birds are common and can be
described at length, and named anew or reasonably, I think
it best to call the Bernicle, Bernicla leucopsis, as Bechstcin
and Temminck have done, and the Brent, Bernicla Brenta,
as some have named it, although melanopsis would be a much
better name, it having an entirely black head and face. With
such names, all others being discarded, it is quite impossible
that the student should fall into any mistake.

622

BERNICLA LEUCOPSIS. THE WHITE-FACED
BERNICLE-GOOSE.

CLAIKIS. CLAKIS. CLAIK-GOOSE. BARNACLE. A\'HITE.CHEEKED BARNACLE.
L.VND BARNACLE.

Fio. 58.

Anas Bcmicla. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 198.
Anas erythropus. Lath. Ind. Ornith. IL 843.
Bemicle Goose. Mont. Ornith. Diet, and Supplt.
Oic Bernache. Anas leucopsis. Temm. Man. d' Ornith. IL 823.
Oie Bernache. Anser leucopsis. Temm. I^Ian. d' Ornith. IV. 520.
Bemicle Goose, or Clakis. Anser Bernicla. Sclby, lUustr. II. 268.
Anser leucopsis. Common Bernicle. Jenyns, Brit. Vert. Anim. 224.
Bernicla leucopsis. Bonap. Comp. List, oo.

Male twenty-seven inches lone/; hill small, much shorter
than the head, an inch and a tliird in length, black; tarsus
two iiicJies and ten-ticelftJis In length, black; the fore imrt of
the head, its sides, a)id the throat n-Jtite ; hind head and neck
glossy black; fore and hind parts of back black ; its middle
jmrt, the scapulars, and u-'nig-coverts ash-grey, banded with
black; the lower parts white, the sides faintly barred witJi
aali-grcy, Female 8i)nilar, but smaller.

WHITE-FACED BERNICLE-GOOSE. fiU.i

Male in Winter. — This very beautiful Goose, much iu-
ferior in size to any of the preeedint^ species, and ((Misider-
ably hirger than the next, luis tlie body full, tlie neck long,
slender toward its upper part, the head small, oblong, and
compressed.

The bill is much shorter than the head, of greater height
than breadth at the base, somewhat conical, at the end con-
siderably depressed ; the up[)er mandible with the dorsal
line straiglit and sloping as far as the unguis, which is
roundish and very convex, the ridge flattened at the base,
presently narrowed and convex, the sides sloping, the edges
almost straight, soft, and marginate, with about thirty
oblique lamella?, of which the outer dentifoi-m extremities
are scarcely apparent ; the lower maiuli])lc with the inter-
crural sjjace long, rather wide, anteriorly rounded, the lower
outline of the crura nearly straiglit, their sides convex,
sloping outward, with a groove along the margin, the
lamellie about forty, the unguis roundish, slightly convex.

The nostrils are medial, lateral, longitudinal, oblong,
three-twelfths and a quarter in length, pervious, in the
anterior part of the large, elliptical nasal space, which is
filled by membrane. The eyes are small. The feet short
and stout ; the tibia bare for half-an-inch ; the tarsus rather
short, compressed, covered all round with small angular
scales. The hind toe is extremely small, elevated, with two
scutella ; the second toe with fourteen, the third with
twenty, the fourth with six scutella, a great part of their
extent being covered with scales ; the hind toe with a slight
inferior web ; the inner with an expanded, thin, two-lobed
margin ; the interdigital membranes reticulated, the outer
with its mai'gin concave. The claws are small, arcuate,
rather depressed, obtuse, that of the middle toe with its
inner side expanded and the tip rounded.

The mouth is of moderate width ; the tongue fleshy,
convex, and medially grooved above, with the sides parallel
and serrated, the tip thin, horny, and rounded. The oeso-
phagus is twelve inches long, and has a general width of
about an inch, but is somewhat wider toward the lower part
of the neck. The stomach is transversely oblong, its greatest

624 BERNICLA LEUCOPSIS.

diameter three inches, its lateral muscles extremely large,
with large tendons ; the epithelium dense, with two thick,
somewhat concave grinding plates. The intestine is seven
feet nine inches in length, its duodenal portion twelve
inches, the rectum six. The duodenum is three-fourths of
an inch in width, the rest of the intestine half-an-inch, but
toward the coeca giadually enlarged to eight-twelfths. The
coeca are seventeen inches long, for three inches only a
quarter of an inch in width, then enlarging to an inch and a
half, and toward the end narrowed, but terminating ob-
tusely ; their aperture two-twelfths in width.

The plumage is full, close, very soft, and glossy ; on the
head, neck, and lower parts blended ; the feathers on the
head small and oblong, on the neck narrow, on the fore part
of the back and wings broad and abruptly rounded, on the
hind part smaller and broadly rounded, on the lower parts
moderate, on the sides very large and abrupt. The wings
are long, extending almost to the end of the tail, broad,
with twenty-eight quills ; the primaries strong, tapering ;
the first and second distinctly cut out on the inner, the
second and third on the outer web ; the second longest, the
first four-twelfths of an inch shorter, the rest rapidly de-
creasing ; the secondaries broad and rounded, the inner elon-
gated, with their outer webs somewhat undulated. The tail
is very short, rounded, of sixteen broad, rounded feathers, of
which the outer are an inch shorter than the longest.

The bill is black ; the iris hazel ; the feet black. The
anterior half of the head, the sides of its hind part, the
cheeks, ear-coverts, and the throat, to the length of two
inches and a quarter from the bill, are white ; some of the
feathers margining the upper mandible, the loral space, and
both eyelids brownish-black ; the posterior half of the head
and the neck are glossy black, that colour ending abruptly
below ; the lower parts of the body greyish-white, the sides
barred Avith pale ash-grey ; the tibial feathers brownish-
black ; the axillar feathers and lower wing-coverts grey.
The fore part of the back is glossy black continuously with
the neck, the feathers grey at the base ; farther back the
grey appears, is succeeded by a broad band of black and a

WITTTE-FACED BERNICLE-GOOSE. 625

terminal narrow band of greyish-white ; the grey most ap-
parent on the .s(;ii)iil;irs. 'J'hc middle, eonceak'd jjart of the
back is grey and black, its hind part bhick ; the sicU-s of the
rump and the upper tail-coverts white ; the tail black. The
wing-coverts are light grey, with a band of black and
groyish-white narrow margin ; the prinuiry coverts ash-grey,
black at the end. The quills are grey at the base and along
the outer Aveb, black toward the end, that colour gradually
diminishing on the inner; the shafts of all dusky.

Length to end of tail 27} inches ; extent of wings 55 ;
wing from flexure 17; tail 5^4; bill along the ridge 1-|^,
along the edge of lower mandible Ij^; tarsus 2-L|; hind
toe ^, its claw -j^ ; second toe l^, its claw -^ ; third toe 2^,
its claw -['^ ; fourth toe ~, its claw -^.

Female. — The female is similar to the male, but con-
siderably less.

Length 24 inches ; extent of wings 52 ; l)ill along the
ridge 1 jV ; wing from flexure 16 ; tarsus 2-,^ ; middle toe
Ij'V, its claw -j^.

Variatioxs. — Considerable diflcrences as to size occur.
The grey on the feathers of the upper parts is more or less
extended, the white of the lower more or less pure.

Habits. — This very beautiful bird occurs in the Northern
Hebrides, Shetland and Orkney Islands, where it arrives in
October and remains until April. It there more frequently
retires to the sea than to the lakes during its periods of
repose, or when driven from its feeding gi'ounds. A large
flock then presents a beautiful spectacle as the birds sit
lightly on the water, and when advancing elevate their
necks. Not less beautiful do they seem when on wing, now
arranged in long lines, ever undulating, at one time ex-
tending in the direction of their flight, at another obliquely
or at right angles to it, sometimes in an angular figure, and
again mingling together. Their voice is clear and rather
shrill, and comes agreeably on the ear when the cries of a
large flock come from a considerable distance.

R R

626 BERNICLA LFX'COPSIS.

The Islands of Ensay and Religray, in the Sonnd of
Harris, used to be much frequented by these birds. In
December, 18123, hearing that a large flock had taken up its
residence in tlic former of these islands, I Avent to see it ;
and on arriving soon found the birds, five or six hundred in
nimiber, dispersed over a flat piece of ground, intersected by
the ridges and furrows of the lazy bed system of agriculture
■which so disfigiire the pastures there ; but on reconnoitering
found it impossible to get Avithin a reasonable distance of
them. However, having watched them until dusk, when
they seemed to have settled themselves for repose, I crept
along a low wall forming an angle about two hundi-ed yards
from them. Finding that I could not get nearer, I fired at
the thickest part of the flock, aiming very high, having in
the obscurity over estimated the distance, and on running
up found a single bird which had been hit by a single grain
in the eye. Next day I Avalked all over the island Avithout
seeing the Bernicles, and amused myself with chasing the
Redshanks, which were not uncommon along the western
beach. At length the birds arrived, and alighted on a gentle
slope in an open place, to which there seemed no access
without exposure. Being there in apparent seciuity they
soon began to feed ; on seeing which I crept up to an emi-
nence, and finding the nearest birds not more than five
hundred paces distant, I cocked my musket, suddenly
started, and ran down the declivity Avith all speed. Before
the birds Avere avcII on Aving I Avas almost up to them, and
as they flcAv over head I fired into a gTOup, on Avhicli three
came Avith a thump to the ground. Tavo Avcre quite dead,
but tlic third presently got on his feet, and Avith flapping
wings, of which the tip of one Avas damaged, ran off". I
tried to overtake him, but failed, and therefore charged,
pursued, fired Avithout hitting, ran, charged, fired a second
time to as little purpose, but at length, after a chase of
nearly half-a-mile, sliot him dead. Having thus obtained
my object, I left the island Avith four Bernicles and a
Northern Diver, Avhich I had killed the day before.

It thus ap])ears that these birds can on occasion run Avith
very considerable speed. In ordinary cases they Avalk se-

WIHTR-FACED BEIINICLE-GOOSK. 627

(lately and prettily, being more active than the larger Geese.
Their food consists of grass, especially the juicy stems of
Agrostis alha, as "well as the blades and roots of other plants.
They also feed in marshes, and by the margins of pools and
small lakes. I have not seen them betake themselves to the
sand-shoals" covered Avith sea-gi*ass at low -water, nor have I
liad any other opportunity of seeing them, unless at a dis-
tance, -when I could not distinguish them from the IJlack-
faced liernicle. The oesophagus of the individual whose
intestinal canal is described above was packed full of grass
in its whole length, none of it in the least macerated ; the
duodenal contents were greenish, and the caca filled with a
pulpy fluid of a yellowish-green colour.

I am not aware of any good account of its habits given,
from his own observation, by any Britisli ornithologist.
Some of our writers, in speaking of it, endeavour to conceal
their ignorance, or to atone for it, by amusing their readers
with the once prevalent notion of its deriving its origin from
the Bernicle shell, the Lepas anatifera of Linnaeus. This
curious ftmcy, whicli no doubt arose from the slight resem-
blance of the filaments of that animal to the sprouting
feathers of a young bird, is still entertained by many persons
along our coast ; but, like the milking propensity of the
Goatsucker and the winter submersion of Swallows, it might
now, I think, be allowed to rest in its grave.

According to the statements of authors, the White-faced
Bernicles arrive and depart at the same periods as the Brent
Geese, frequent the same situations, and have similar habits,
but are of less frequent occurrence; and being usually con-
founded with them by those whose ornithological knowledge
is not very perfect, they do not attract particular regard.
Dr. Edmondston informs us that they are only occasionally
seen in Shetland ; but Messrs. Baikie and Heddle state that
numbers arrive in September and October, and remain until
spring, at which time they receive considerable additions
from flocks migrating northwards. They have been seen in
the Clyde and Solway friths, as well as on the Lancashire
coast, but seem to be rare in England. On the east coast of
Scotland I have seen a few indiduals shot at Peterhead and

628 BERNICLA LEUCOPSIS.

Aberdeen. It is included by Mr. Molison in the list of birds
frequenting the Montrose Basin ; and Mr. Lamb, taxidermist
at Perth, inforais me he has several times had it from the
estuary of the Tay. In Ireland it " is a regular -winter
visitant to the coast."

Dispersing in winter along the shores of Europe, they
repair in summer to the arctic regions, whence to return in
autumn with their young. They have also been found in
the glacial regions of North America. The nest is said to
be formed of grass, and to contain six or eight eggs. I have
examined several specimens from Parry's Arctic Expeditions.
Of two presented to Professor Jameson by Mr. Edwards, one
is two inches and seven-eighths long, an inch and eleven-
twelfths broad ; the other two inches and six-eighths long,
an inch and seven-eighths in breadth. They are of an ellip-
tical form, the two ends equal, and of a greyish- white tint.

629

BERNICLA IJREXTA. THE BLACK-FACED
BERNICLE-GOOSE.

BRENT GOOSE. BRAND GOOSE. BARNACLE. BLACK-HEADED BARNACLE.

RING-NECKED BARN ACL K. CLATTER GOOSE. HORRA GOOSE.

WARE GOOSE.

Anas Bemicla. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 198.

Anas Bemicla. Lath. lud. Orn. IL 844.

Brent Goose. Mont. Orn. Diet, and Supplt.

Oie cravant. Anas Bcrnicla. Tcmm. ISLan. d'Om. II. 824.

Oie cravant. Anser Bemicla. Temm. Man. d'Ora. IV. 522.

Brent Goose. Anser Brenta Selb. lUustr. II. 27 L

Anser torquatus. Brent Bcmicle. Jen. Brit. Vert., An. 224.

Bcrnicla Brenta. Bonap. Corap. List. 56.

Male twenty-four inches long; hill small, much shorter
than the head, an inch and a half in length, black ; tarsus two
inches and a quarter long, black ; head and neck glossy black ;
a patch of white, dotted with black, on each side of the upper
part of the neck ; the upper parts of the body brownish-grey,
the lower greyish -white, the sides barred with ash-grey.
Female similar, but smaller.

M.\LE IN Winter.— The " Brent Goose " is much inferior
in size to the " Bernicle Goose," and easily distinguishable
from it by its having the head entirely black. In form and
proportions, however, it is very similar to that species. The
body is full ; the neck rather long, slender toward its upper
part ; the head small, oblong, and compressed.

The bill is much shorter than the head, of greater height
than breadth at the base, somewhat conical, considerably
compressed, at the end a little depressed ; the upper mandible
with the dorsal line nearly straight and sloping, the ridge
flattened at the base, presently narrowed and convex, the
sides sloping, the edges almost straight, soft and marginate,
with about twenty-five oblique lamella?, of which the outer

630 BERNICLA BRENTA.

dentiform extremities are scarcely apparent, the unguis
nearly circular, very convex ; the lower mandible with the
intercrural space very long, rather -wide, anteriorly rounded,
the lower outline of the crura slightly convex, their sides
convex, the edges soft, with about forty lamellae, the unguis
roundish, moderately convex.

The nostrils are medial, lateral, longitudinal, oblong,
three-twelfths in length, pervious, in the anterior part of the
elliptical nasal space, which is filled by membrane. The eyes
arc small ; the feet short and stout ; the tibia bare for a thu-d
of an inch ; the tarsus short, compressed, covered all round
with small angular scales. The hind toe is extremely small,
elevated, with two small scutella ; the second toe with
eighteen scutella, and much shorter than the third, Avhich
has thirty-two, while the outer, a little shorter, has about
twenty-four, they being all scaly at the base. The hind toe
has a slight inferior web, the second an expanded thin two-
lobed margin ; the intcrdigital membranes reticulated, the
outer with its margin concave. The claws are small, arcuate,
rather depressed, obtuse, that of the middle toe with its inner
side expanded.

The plumage is close, compact, and glossy ; on the head
and neck the feathers blended, small, oblong ; on the fore
part of the back and wings broad and abruptly rounded ; on
the hind part smaller and ovate ; on the lower parts large,
broadly rounded ; on the sides very large. The -wings are
long, extending a little beyond the tail, broad, with twenty-
eight quills ; the primaries strong, tapering, the first and
second much cut out on the inner Aveb, the second and third
on the outer ; the second longest, the first slightly shorter,
the rest rapidly decreasing ; the secondaries broad and
rounded, tlie inner elongated, with their outer webs some-
what undulated. The tail is very short, rounded, of sixteen
moderately broad, rounded feathers.

The bill is black ; the iris hazel ; the feet black. The
head and neck are glossy black, tinged with blue. There is
a small semilunar white mark on the lower eyelid, and on
each side of the upper ])art of the neck an obliqiiely elliptical
patch of the same colour, the two patches almost meeting

BLACK-FACED BERNICLE-GOOSE. 631

behind. The feathers on these species are not entirely
white, but have a broad band of that colour near the
end. The general colour of the upper parts is brownish-
grey, but the feathers are terminally margined with light
greyish-brown. The quills arc greyish-black, with Inowu
shafts, the inner secondaries lighter ; the primary coverts
grey, becoming blackish toward the end ; the secondary
coverts dull gi'ey. The breast and sides are pale brownish-
grey, transversely interruptedly barred with greyish-white,
the terminal edges of the feathers being of the latter colour ;
the tibial feathers grey, as are the axillary, and the lower
surface of the wing ; the abdomen, lower and upper tail-
coverts, white. The tail-feathers are greyish-black.

Length to end of tail '^5 inches ; extent of wings 48 ;
wing from flexure 13^; tail 4^-; bill along the ridge 1],
along the edge of lower mandible l-,^ ; tarsus 2j ; hind
toe 3^, its claw jV ; second toe Ij-j, its claw -^ ; third
toe 1-f^, its claw -^ ; fourth toe 1 -j^, its claw- -^.

Female. — The female is somewhat smaller, but otherwise
differs from the male only in having the upper parts more
tinged with brown.

Length to end of tail 23 inches ; extent of wings 46 ;
wing from flexure 13 ; tail 4| ; bill along the ridge 1-j^ ;
tarsus 2^ ; middle toe l-j^rr, its claw^ j\.

Habits. — This species is very abundant on many parts of
oin* coasts, from the end of October to the middle of April.
I have seen it in the Hebrides, both on the sea and on fresh-
water. Being in the Bay of Cromarty, in the middle of
March, 1837, I met Avith some very large flocks, dispersed
over the shoals of mud and sand, which were covered Avith a
luxuriant crop of Zostera marina, the rhizomata of which
being juicy and saccharine, affords them a nutritious food.
When the banks were covered by the tide, they floated in
repose over the bay, or flew off" to a distant part. Several
thousands were seen, but their numbers were said to have
been greatly diminished. I have also met Avith them, in
smaller numbers, in the Beauly Frith, the Montrose Basin,

632 BERNICLA BIlENTA.

the Filth of Tay, and other parts. In those to the south-
ward, on both sides of Scotland, they are to be seen during the
winter. Very considerable numbers are sent to the Edinburgh
market, where they are in some request, their flesh being not
imsavoury, and rather tender.

According to Mr. Selby, " a very large body of these birds
annually resorts to the extensive muddy and sandy flats that
lie between the mainland and Holy Island, and which are
covered by every flow of the tide." He states that they there
feed on " the leaves and stems of a species of grass that grows
abundantly in the shallow pools left by the tide," and on
various alga?, remaining until the end of February, when they
migrate in successive flocks, the whole disappearing before
April.

It may readily be conceived, that the numbers in the
different places of resort may vary according to circumstances.
" The late Mr. Boys of Sandwich," says Montagu, " informed
us, that in the year 1739-40, when these birds were so abundant
on the Continent, especially on the coast of Picardy, where
the inhabitants were raised en masse in order to destroy them,
they were so plentiful on the coast of Kent, that they were
in so starving a condition as to suffer themselves to be
knocked down with stones and sticks ; and were carried in
carts to the neighbouring towns, where a purchaser was
allowed to pick and choose for sixpence a-piece. We learn
from the same respectable source, that in the year ISOo tliey
were innumerable about Sandwich ; and were so miserably
poor and debilitated as not to be able to rise after alighting,
and many were taken by hand. ' It is remarkable,' says
Mr. Boys, *not a Bcrnicle, Grey-Lag Goose, nor Bean Goose,
have been seen with this superabundance of Brent Geese,
and yet the weather has been sufliiciently severe to compel
the Hooping Swan so for south.' It is a curious circumstance
that such occasional excesses in migration of some particular
species should occur so locally. Thus, when the Brent was
so plentiful on the eastern coast of the kingdom, not a single
instance occurred in the west, to our knowledge ; yet in the
year 1800, about Christmas, they were common, contiguous
to the coast of South Devon."

BLACK-FACED BEKXICLE-GOOSE. 633

It does not iip])eiir that iiuy rt'iniiiii with us during the
lnt'odiii|4' season, even in our most northern ishiuds. la
sunuaer, they are found in tlie arctie rej^ious of botli conti-
nents, and in winte'- are dispersed alonj^ «;ho coasts of
America, as well as Ivirope. The nest, which is placed in
marshy ground, is formed of withered herbage. Of two eggs,
from Parry's second expedition, presented to Professor
Jameson by ^Ir. Fisher, one is two inches and a half in
length by an inch and five and a half eighths, the other two
inches and five eighths by an inch and six and a half eighths.
They are of a nearly elliptical form, the broadest part being
almost central, and one end a little larger than the other ;
the colour of one asparagus-giecn, or pale greyish-green, of
the other paler, and approaching to apple-green,

Mr. Thomson, who states that it is abundant in Ireland,
occurring on both sides of the island, wherever there is plenty
of its favourite Zostera marina, gives a very lengthened account
of its habits as observed in Belfast Bay. They generally
arrive there by the first week of September, and sometimes
remain until ^lay. Strictly marine, they fly to the deep
water in the afternoon, and remain there during the night
at sunrise return to their feeding grounds, generally proceed-
ing in small Hocks, and alighting altogether about the same
place. They are very wary, and avoid in their flights
objects with which they are not familiar. Their mingling
cries, heard from a distance, resemble those of a pack of
hounds. They svi^im quickly, but are not expert at diving,
and remain but a short time under Avater. " The food con-
tained in Brent Geese from the loughs of Larne, Belfast, and
Strangford, examined by myself, was always Zostera, of which
were portions of the leaf from one to two feet in length, as
well as of the root : in addition to the plant, there was always
sand. An observant shooter and bird-preserver (Mr. Darraghj,
who has looked to the food in a considerable number of these
geese, never found anything but Zostera. This was generally
in pieces about a foot in length, wliich, when so long, Avere
always folded neatly up, sometimes as much so as a ribbon,
but short pieces were not so arranged."

634

BERNICLA RUFICOLLIS. THE RED-NECKED
BERNICLE-GOOSE.

RED-BREASTED BERNICLE.

Anas ruficoUis. Gmel. Syst. Xat. I. 511.

Anas ruficollis. Lath. Ind. Om. II. 841.

Red-breasted Goose, Mont. Om. Diet.

Oie a ecu roiix. .^nas ruficollis. Temm. Man. d'Ornith. II. 826.

Eed-breasted Goose. Anser ruficollis. Selb. lUustr. II. 275.

Anser ruficollis. Eed-breasted Bernicle. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 225.

Bernida riificoUis. Bonap. Comp. List, 56.

Male twenty-two inches long ; hill small, an inch and a
fourth in length, reddish'hroicn,with the unguis black; tarsus
two inches and a half in length, brow7iish-black ; throat, upper
part of the head, and a narrow band down the neck beJiind,
black ; a patch between the bill and the eye, behind the latter
a large oblong space, enclosing a broicnish-red patch, and
becoming narrow cdong the neck, xvhite ; fore-neck brownish-
red, margined belotv with a narrow band of black, which is
succeeded by a white ring; breast black; sides banded iciih
black and ivhite ; the rest of the lower parts and the rump
tchite ; upper parts brownish-black ; the larger wing-coverts
tipped with white.

Male. — This beautiful bird, which is somewhat inferior
in size to the Black-faced Bernicle, but similar in form, has
occurred so seldom in Britain, that I have not seen an indivi-
dual obtained there. The body is full, as in the other species ;
the neck long and rather slender at its upper part ; the head
small, oblong, compressed, arched above.

The bill is much shorter than the head, of greater lieight
than breadth at tlie base, somewhat conical, at the end a little
depressed ; the ujiper mandible with the dorsal line straight

RED-NECKED BERNICLE-GOOSE. 635

and declinate as far as the unguis, which is roundish and
convex, the ridpjo flattened at the hase, presently narrowed
and convex, the edges almost straight, the ends of the lanielluj
not apparent ; the lower mandible witli the intercrural space
long and rather wide ; the lower outline of the crura almost
straight ; the unguis roundish, slightly convex.

The nostrils are sub-medial, lateral, oblong, three-twelfths
in length. The eyes small. The legs short and stout ; the
tibia bare for nearly half an inch ; the tarsus compressed,
covered with small angular scales. The hind toe is extremely
small and elevated, with two scutella, the second with four-
teen, the third with twenty, the fourth with eight, a great
part of their extent being covered with scales ; the mem-
branes reticulated, with their margin concave. The claws
arc small, arcuate, rather depressed, obtuse, that of the middle
toe with its inner edge expanded, and the tip rounded.

The phmiage is full,close,soft, and glossy; on the head and
neck blended, on the latter linear-oblong, those behind some-
■what elongated ; on the fore part of the back and wings broad
and abruptly rounded, on the sides very large and rounded.
The wings are large, and when closed extend almost to the
end of the tail ; the primaries strong, tapering, the second
longest. The tail is very short, rounded, of sixteen broad,
rounded feathers.

The bill is reddish-brown, Avith the unguis black ; the iris
reddish-brown ; the feet brownish-black. The throat, upper
part of the head, and a narrow band along the hind-neck, are
black. A large patch between the bill and the eye is white.
Behind the eye is an ovate-oblong, brownish-red patch, sur-
rounded by a white band, which runs down the neck in a
narrow streak. The fore part of the neck is bright hrowniish-
red. At the lower part of tlie neck the red is bordered with
a narrow band of black, beyond which is a white ring. The
breast and up])er parts are brownish-black ; the feathers of
the sides, and the larger upper wing-coverts tipped with
white. The hind part of the breast, abdomen, lower tail-
coverts, and rump, are white. The tail is brownish-black,
like the quills.

Length to end of tail 22 inches ; wing from flexure 14 ;

636 BERXICLA RUFICOLLIS.

tail 4^ ; bill along the ridge 1^ ; along the edge of loAver
mandible 1:^ ; tarsus 2^ ; hind toe -[^, its claw -^ ; second
toe 1-^, its claw -^^ ; third toe S-Jj, its claw ^ ; fourth toe
3\^, its claw jL-.

[_ Femalp:. — Is said to bo similar to the male.

IIarits, — The Red-necked Bernicle, according to M.
Temminck, inhabits the arctic regions of Asia, and occasion-
ally makes its appearance in various parts of Europe. In
Britain it is only known as a very rare and accidental visitant,
not more than about a dozen instances of its occurrence being
on record. Dr. Latham informs us that, in the severe frost of
1766, one was shot in the neighbourhood of London. Montagu
states that another was taken alive in Yorkshire about the
same time. Mr. Selby says a third, shot near Berwick-on-
Tweed, was sent to Mr. Bullock ; and, according to Mr.
Stephens, several were killed in Cambridgeshire in the severe
winter of 1813. A few other instances are mentioned of its
occurrence in Norfolk and Devonshire. The only instance of
its appearance in Scotland known to me is related in a notice
with which I have been favoured by the Rev. Mr. Smith of
iSIonquhitter : — " Many years ago, an individual of this rare
and beautiful species, was seen, for several days, in the imme-
diate vicinity of the Loch of Strathbeg. It was recognised by
more than one individual well conversant with ornithology.
There was, however, no opportunity obtained of seeming it."

63^

CIIENALOPEX. FOX-GOOSE.

This genus appears to me to be intermediate between
those of Anser and Tadoma, resembling the former in some
respects and tlie hitter in others. From the Geese properly
so calU-d, the Kgyptiau Fox-Goose, the best-known represen-
tative of this genus differs very little in form, and in colour
approaches to the Shiel Ducks, of Avliich the bill is very diffe-
rent. In few words Chenalopex may be defined as similar in
form to Anser, but with the bill somewhat more depressed
toward the end, and less narrowed, with the nail more curved,
the lamellic not aj)parent externally, the wings with a promi-
nent rounded knob on the flexure, the colours of the plumage
more varied than in the Geese.

Bill of nearly the same length as the head, stout, straight,
sub-conical when viewed laterally, but when seen from above
little narrower toward the end than at the base, where it is
not much higher than broad ; upper mandible with the lateral
and superior basal margins forming a small segment of a
circle, the angles between them short and rather obtuse, the
basal margin thickened and fleshy, the ridge rather broad and
flattened at the base, gi-adually narrow and convex, the dorsal
line dcclinate, between the nostrils and unguis rather con-
cave, the sides convex, the edges soft and marginate, with the
outer ends of the oblique lamelliv thin and not projecting, the
unguis roundish, at the base somewhat angular, very convex,
and much decurved ; lower mandible with the intercrural
space long, rather wide, its membrane bare unless at the base,
the short dorsal line little convex, the crura long, narrow,
their lower outline straight, the edges elevated, inelinate,
externallv ridged, and above denticulate with the short outer
extremities ot the numerous, oblique lamella?, the unguis
broad, roundish, and transversely convex.

638 CHENALOPEX. FOX-GOOSE.

Nostrils rather small, elliptical, sub-medial, in the lower
and fore part of the oblong, sub-basal, nasal sinus. Eyes
small ; eyelids feathered. Feet of moderate length, stout,
placed well forward ; tibia bare for a short space ; tarsus
moderately compressed, reticulated with small angular scales,
of Mhich, however, the anterior are scutelliform. Hind toe
very small, elevated, with a thick scabrous lobe beneath, the
outer a little shorter than the third, the inner considerably
shorter ; all scaly at the base, but with numerous scutella ;
the interdigital membranes reticulate, full, the outer emargi-
nate, the inner toe Avith a slightly two-lobed thick web. The
claws short, strong, little arched, rather compressed, obtuse,
that of the third toe with the inner side expanded, and the tip
rounded.

Plumage full, close, firm, blended. Feathers of the head
very small, oblong ; of the neck naiTOw, not arranged in
oblique ridges and grooves as in the Geese ; those of the back
oblong and rounded ; of the lower parts ovate and rounded,
as are the elongated feathers of the sides ; the scapulars very
large, oblong. The Avings of moderate length, broad, rather
pointed, the second quill being longest, and the first little
shorter, the outer five having their oiiter web narrowed
toward the end ; the secondaries broad and rounded, the
inner elongated, broad, and also rounded. The tail short,
rounded, of fourteen broad, rounded feathers.

The female is similar to the male, but with the colours
duller.

039

CHENALOPEX ^GYPTIACUS. THE EGYPTIAN
FOX-GOOSE.

EGYPTIAN GOOSE.

Ana8 ^gyptiaca. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 197.

Oie iEgjT)tienne. Anscr .^gfj-ptiacus. Tcmm. ^fan. d'Om. II. 523.
Anser iEgyptiacus. Egyptian Goose. Jen. Brit. Vert. An. 225.
Chenalopei JEgyptiaca. Bonap. Comp. List, 56.

About twejity-cight inches long ; xoith a jxrominent margin
at the base of the vpper mandible, and a bare knob on the
wings ; the bill red ; the miguis and part of the upper man-
dible black ; a roundish space about the eye light chestnut-red ;
the wing-coverts ivhite ; the secondary coverts with a transverse
black band near the end ; the lower parts cream-coloured, with
a large chestnut-red patch on the breast.

Male in Winter. — This beautiful bird is easily distin-
fTuishable from any British species of the Goose family, on
account of its more gaudy plumage, in the colouring of Avhich
it somewhat resembles the Shiel Duck, the prominence at the
base of its upper mandible, and the obtuse bare knobs at the
flexure of the Avings. In its general appearance it differs
very little from the Geese, properly so called, and is about
equal in size to the White-faced Bernicle. The body is full ;
the neck rather long, and somewhat slender ; the head oblong,
compressed.

The bill is a little shorter than the head, stout, sub-
conical, of nearly equal breadth throughout, being a little
narrowed toward the end ; the upper mandible with a promi-
nent basal margin, the dorsal line sloping, a little concave
between the nostrils and the unguis, which is roundish, at
the base angular, very convex, and much decurved, the sides

C40 CHEXALOPEX .EGYPTIACUS.

nearly erect at the base, then sloping, a little concave about
the middle, convex toward the end, the margins soft, con-
cealing their lamellir, their outline nearly straight, the nasal
sinus oblong, sub-basal near the ridge ; the lower mandible
straight, with the intercrural space long and of moderate
width, thr edges a little inclinate, with little elevated exter-
nal lamella?, the ungui^ broad, roundish, little convex.

Internally the iipper mandible is broadjy concave, and
covered with small scattered papilla^, with a medial papillate
ridge, and oi) each side a series of small depressed lamellie,
separated by a i-light groov^ from the lateral lamella?, Avhich
are oblique, little elevated, flattened, curved, and tapering
toward the outer end, which is thin and not prominent, their
numbers about forty-five. The marginal lamellfc of the lower
mandible very small, about sixty, the outer nearly forty.

The nostrils are elliptical, sub-medial, two-twelfths and a
half long. The ajierture of the eye four-twelfths. The feet
are strong ; the tibia bare for nearly an inch ; the tarsus a
little compressed, with sub-hexagonal scales, and an anterior
series of larger scales, hardly, however, deserving the name of
scutella. Tl\e hind toe is small, elevated, with five scutella,
and an inferior tliick lobe ; the anterior toes rather long, the
inner with twelve scutella, the middle toe with thirty, extend-
ing almost to the base, the outer with twenty-three ; both it
and the inner being scaly toward the base ; the interdigital
membranes a little emarginate, that of the inner toe narroAv.
The claws are short and stout ; that of the hind toe nearly
straight and blunt, the vest a little arched, the -ateral obtuse,
that of the middle toe considerably dilated and roinided.

The plumage is full, soft, and elastic ; on <he head short
and imbricated ; on the upper-nech short and blended, the
feathers narrow ; those on the lower neck all round, the
breast, and the rest of the lower parts soft and blended, and
as well as those on tli'> fore part of the ba( k ovate and rounded,
but on the rest of the back short and imbricated. Tlie wings
are of ordinary length, broad, and rather pointed ; the prima-
ries ten, slightly cui ved. tapering, but rounded ; the secon-
daries sixteen, broad, rounded, tlie outer eurved inwards ; the
second (juill longest, the third scarcely shorter, the first

EGYPTIAN FOX-GOOSE. 641

sliglitly longer than tlie fourth. The tail is short, much
rounded, of" fourteen nearly straight, rounded feathers, the
shaft of which is prolonged a little beyond the terminal fila-
ments. The lower coverts reach to within an inch of the tip
of the tail.

The prominent roundish tubercle on the wing is not horny ^
but covered by skin.

The bill is of a reddish flesh-colour, with the unguis and
part of the margins of the upper mandible black ; that of tlie
lower dusky brown. The eyes are orange-red. A roundish
space about the eye, Avith a band from thence to the base of
the bill, and the feathers along the margin of the latter light
chestnut-red ; the rest of the head cream-colour, shaded with
glossy brownish-red along the hind part of the neck for half
its length, Avhere it enlarges and passes across the neck in
front ; the throat reddish cream-colour. The lower part of
the neck all roinid is pale reddish, minutely undulated with
transverse dusky lines. The fore part of the back and the
scapulars brownish-red, undulated with dusky and grey, the
larger scapulars chiefly red. The rest of the back and the
tail feathers glossy black. The smaller wing-coverts are
Avhite ; the secondary coverts with a transverse black band
near the end. The primary quills are black, with a tinge of
brown ; the secondary quills gi"eyish-black, but with part of
their outer webs of a glossy deep green, and four of the inner
gi-ey internally and light red on the outer web. The lower
parts cream-coloured, paler in the middle, on the sides finely
undulated with brownish-grey. On the fore part of the breast
is a large patch of deep chestnut-red ; the feathers under the
tail are pale yellowish-red ; the axillary feathers and most of
the lower wing-coverts white.

Length to end of tail 28 inches ; extent of wings 58 ;
wing from flexure 5f ; tail 5|- ; bill along the ridge 2^ ;
along the edge of lower mandible l]^ ; tarsus 3 ; hind toe
-f-j, its claw -^ ; second toe 2, its claw -^ ; third toe 2^, its
claw -j^ ; fourth toe 2-j^, its claw ■^.

Female. — The female, which is considerably smaller, is
less richly coloured than the male, but otherwise similar.

s s

642 EGYPTL\N FOX-GOOSE.

Habits. — The claims of this species to be admitted as a
British bird are somewhat similar to those of the Pheasant.
Its proper country is Africa, over the wliole extent of which
it is said to occur, as well as occasionally in the south-eastern
parts of Europe. But, having been introduced into this
country on account of its beauty, it thrives remarkably well
in a semi-domesticated state, and being always apt to stray,
individuals have withdrawn themselves from the protection of
man, and in some parts are said to have become completely
Avild, and to breed as in their original country. Specimens
are thus often obtained at great distances from any place where
they are fostered. Even large flocks are met with, which it
would be diflicult to show to be even naturalized. Thus, in
lSo2, I was permitted by Captain Sharp, of the Royal Navy,
to take a drawing and description from one which was shot on
the 3d November, by Mr John Hay, on the banks of the river
Tyne, near Tyningham, the seat of Lord Haddington, in East
Lothian. The flock consisted of nineteen, flying in a line
from the sea to the southward, in stormy weather. The one
killed was the leader, and the largest of the string. On
being shot at they turned and flew to sea. It would be
useless to indicate particular instances of its occurrence in
England, where it is more common in the semi-domesticated
state than in Scotland. It has also " occasionally been shot
on the coast of Ireland."

<i4a

PLECTROPTERUS. SPUR-WINGED GOOSE.

This genus differs very little from the preceding, except in
presenting, instead of a soft, or skin-covered knob, on the
tarsi, a projecting, pointed, hard spur, analogous to that so
conspicuous in tlie Jacanas and some members of the Plover
family.

The bill is nearly as long as the head, stout, straight, of
nearly equal height and breadth at the base, where there is a
protuberance, and becoming depressed toward the end, which
is broadly rounded, with the unguis large, very convex, much
decurved, and strong-edged ; the lamellaj of the upper man-
dible externally thin and concealed. The general aspect is
that of an ordinary Goose ; the legs, however, rather longer ;
the wings rather long and broad ; the tail short and rounded.

644

PLECTROPTERUS GAMBENSIS. GAMBO SPUR-
WINGED GOOSE.

Spu^-^^^nged Goose. Bew. Brit. Birds, II. 296.

Plectropterus Gambensis. Steph. in Shaw's Gen. Zool. XII. pt. II. 6.

Anser Ganibensis. Jen. Brit. Vert. Anim. 226.

Bill reddish-yellow ; feet orange; upper part of the head
and neck hroivn; loioer part of the neck, sides of the breast,
and upper parts black, glossed with green; loiver parts
white.

Of this .species, which is indigenous to Northern and
Western Africa, a specimen Avas killed near St. Germains, in
Cornwall, in June, 1821, and, after being mutilated, was
sent to Mr. Bewick, who thus describes it : — " The bill is
reddish-yellow, with a jointed protuberance at the base of
the upper mandible. The upper part of the head and neck
are dingy brown ; the auriculars and sides of the throat are
white, spotted with brown ; the lower part of the neck,
sides of the breast, and all the upper plumage appear black,
but this colour is lost, particularly in the scapulars and
tertials, which are most resplendently bronzed and glossed
with brilliant green, and most of the outer webs of the
feathers partake of the same hue ; on the bend of the wing
or wrist is placed a strong white horny spur, about five-
eighths of an inch in length, turning upwards and rather
inAvards ; the whole of the edges of the wing from the alula
spuria to the elbow and shoulder are white, all the under
parts the same. This beautiful bird is nearly of the bulk of
the Wild Goose, but its legs and toes are somewhat longer,
and of a red or orange-yellow."

Mr. Mewburn, of St. Germains, who sent tlie skin to

GAMBO SPUR-WINGED GOOSE. C15

Mr. Bewick, has supplied the following particulars respecting
its capture to Mr. Fox, in whose Synopsis of the contents of
the Newcastle Museum they are recorded : — " Wlicn first
seen it was in a field adjoining the cliffs at Port Wrinkle, a
small fishing-pliiee about four miles from St. Gcrmains, near
which it remained for two or three days. IJeing several
times disturbed by attempts to shoot it, it came more inland,
to a low situated farm called Pool, and there associated with
the common (xeese ; but was wild, and immediately took
wing upon being approached. Here it kept to and fro for a
day or two, but being much disturbed, left, and came down
upon the shore of the St. Germains river or estuary, when
the following day, the 20th of June, 1821, it was shot by
John Brickford in a wheat-field at Sconnor, about a mile
from St. Germains. When killed it was in the most perfect
state, having only one shot in the head. Some gentlemen
who saw it the following day requested him to let me have
it, which he promised ; but though he knew I was a bird-
stuffer he had a wife, who, from some strange infatuation,
thought she could stuff it ; but being soon convinced of her
inability she cut off the wings for dusters, and threw the
skin away ; and it was not till three weeks afterwards that I
heard of the circumstance, when I sent a servant, who
brought it covered with mud, the head torn off, but luckily
preserved, as also one wing, when I had it washed, and put
it together as well as I was able." The skin, on being sent
to Mr. Bewick, was reset by Mr. R. Wingate, and is now in
the Newcastle Museum.

646

CYGNINiE.

SWANS AND ALLIED SPECIES.

The small group of very large birds commonly known
by the name of Swans presents forms intermediate between
those of the Anserinte and Anatinsc, although to the ordinary
observer they seem much more allied to the former than to
the latter.

They have the body of an elongated, somew'hat elliptical
form ; the neck very long ; the head of moderate size, oblong,
compressed, flattened in front ; the bill rather longer than
the head, high at the base, depressed toward the end, of
nearly equal breadth throughout, and rounded at the end ;
the upper mandible internally concave, with a middle row of
prominent blunt tubercles, a row of flattened tubercles, and
a row of slender, little elevated lamelloe on each side. The
tongue is fleshy, thick, Avith the edges thin, fringed with
slender, flattened papillae, under which is a smaller row of
filaments. The oesophagus is narrow, a little dilated at the
lower part of the neck ; the stomach transversely elliptical,
extremely muscular ; the intestine long, rather narrow, with
long cylindrical ca'ca. The trachea has the inferior larynx
laterally compressed.

The eyes are small : the nostrils elliptical, medial. The
legs, placed a little behind the centre of equilibrium, are
short, stout, with the tibia bare for a short space ; the tarsus
considerably compressed ; the toes four, the first very small
and free, the anterior longer than the tarsus, the outer a
little shorter than the third ; the webs full ; the claws strong,
arched, compressed, rather obtuse.

The ])luniage of the head and neck is soft and blended,
of the other parts full, close, and firm. The wings very

SWANS AND ALLIED SPECIES. 647

long, rather broad, convex, the second and third quills
longest, the first little shorter ; the tail short, rounded, of
from eighteen to twenty-four feathers.

Gregarious, migratory, flying in^ lines when journeying.
They feed on vegetable substances, swim with ease and very
gracefully, keeping the neck curved and the wings somewhat
raised. They have a strong and Yii\)\d flight, never dive
when searching for food, and walk slowly and rather un-
gracefully. They difft'r little from the Anserina' and Anatinaj*
from which, however, they are easily distinguishable by their
gi'eat size, together with their comparatively short legs and
very elongated neck, as well as their large and peculiarly
shaped bill, of which the breadth is nearly uniform. A
curve or loop of the trachea, which is contained in a cavity
in the substance of the sternum, exists in most of the
species.

SYxYOFSIS OF TUB BRITISH GENERA AXB SPECIES.

GENUS I. CYGNUS. SWAN,

Bill rather longer than the head, large, higher than
broad at tlie base, gradually becoming depressed, of nearly
equal breadtii throughout, and rounded at the end ; a bare
space between the eye and the base of the bill ; tarsus short,
stout, considerably compressed, reticulated with small angular
scales ; hind toe free, very small, elevated, compressed be-
neath ; anterior toes longer than the tarsus, reticulate as far
as the second joint ; intcrdigital membranes full ; claws
strong, arched, compressed, rather obtuse ; feathers of the
head very small and oblong, of the neck narrow and soft, of
the other parts ovate and rounded ; wings very long, with
about thirty-two quills, the second and third longest ; tail
short, rounded, of from eighteen to twenty-four rounded
feathers.

1. Cygnns itnmtttahiUs. Changeless Sican. About sixty
inches long; bill orange-red, with the unguis and a compressed

648 CYGNIN.E.

knob at the base black ; feet dull grey ; plumage pure white,
as is that of the voungr.

2. Cygnns musicus. Whoojiing Swan. About sixty inches
long ; bare space on the forehead, and between the eyes and
bill, bright yellow, as is the base of both mandibles, that
colour extending in an angular form on the sides of the
upper mandible to beyond the nostrils, the rest black ; feet
black ; plumage pure white, the head tinged with orange-
red.

S. Cggnus Bewickii. Beicick''s Swan. About forty inches
long ; bare space on the forehead, and between the eyes and
bill, bright yellow, as is the base of the upper mandible, that
colour extending in an angular form, but not reaching the
nostrils, the rest black ; feet black ; plumage pure white, the
head and neck tinged with orange-red.

4. Cygnus Americanus. Atnen'ca?i Swan. About forty-
four inches long ; bill and bare space on the fore part of the
head black, Avith an oblong orange patch, never more than
an inch in length, between the eye and the base of the bill ;
feet black ; plumage pure white, the head tinged with
orange-red.

640

CYGNUS. SWAN.

This genus is formed of a small number of species,
remarkable for tbeir great size, they being the largest birds
of the order to ■which they belong, and distinguishable from
the Geese and other allied genera by the extreme bulk of
their ovato-oblong, full, ami somewhat depressed body ; their
excessively elongated and slender neck ; and short, consider-
ably compressed tarsi. The head is of moderate size, oblong,
compressed, and rather flattened in front.

The bill rather longer than the head, large, higher than
broad at the base, gradually becoming more depressed, of
nearly equal breadth throughout, and rounded at the end;
upper mandible with the lateral and superior basal margins
at first semicircular, forming two short angles, but ulti-
mately obliterated by the disappearance of the feathers, which
leave a large space extending to the eye bare ; the ridge
broad and flattened at the base, gradually narrowed, convex
toward the end, the dorsal line sloping, a little concave at
first, the sides nearly erect at the base, gradually more de-
clinate and convex toward the end ; the unguis generally
roundish, large, and convex ; the edges soft, mai'ginate, and
scrobiculate, straight, and concealing the narrow, blunt tips
of the slender, little elevated lamellse ; lower mandible with
the intercrural space very long, of moderate width, its mem-
brane bare for two-thirds, the short dorsal line convex, the
crura long, narrow, their lower outline slightly re-arcuate,
their sides sloping outwards and convex, the edges elevated,
inclinate, denticulate with the short outer extremities of the
lamella?, the imguis roundish and little convex ; the gape-
line nearly straight, commencing anteriorly to the margin of
the feathers on the forehead.

650 CYGNUS. SWAN.

Mouth of moderate width. Anterior palate deeply con-
cave, with a lateral series of obscure flattened lamellae on
each side, not separated by a gi-oove from the slender, little
elevated marginal lamellte, a medial row of prominent blunt
tubercles, and an intermediate oblique series of flattened
tubercles. The tongue is fleshy, thick, with the sides
parallel, the base with a dorsal row of conical papilla^, a soft
large prominence near it ; a deep medial groove, having on
each side acute, flat, spreading papillae, the edges thin,
fringed with slender flattened papilli:e, of which the posterior
are large and serrulate, the anterior small ; and under this
series a smaller row of filaments extending behind the base
of the tongue. (Esophagus extremely long, narroAv, dilated
a little toward the furcula, then contracted, but with the
lower part enlarged. The stomach an extremely developed,
oblique, transversely elliptical gizzard, of which the lateral
muscles are excessively thick, their tendons large, the lower
muscle distinct, with its tendons passing under the others ;
the epithelium forming two very thick, considerably concave,
smoothish grinding surfaces. The intestine is long, rather
narrow, arranged in about sixteen folds ; the coeca long,
narrow^ at the base, then of moderate width and cylindrical ;
the cloaca globular.

The trachea of very numerous, broad, considerably flat-
tened rings, in some species curved and entering the sternum
before passing into the thorax, in others following the usual
course. The inferior larynx laterally compressed, ■with its
last rings united. Appended to the last or semilunar ring
on each side is a narrow membrane, terminated by a very
slender half-ring, and standing free from the large membrane
intervening between the last tracheal and first bronchial
rings. The bronchi short, wide, varying in form in the
different species.

Nostrils elliptical, medial, near the ridge, in the fore part
of the oblong nasal sinus. Eyes small ; eyelids feathered,
with bare crcnulate margins. Aperture of ear small. Feet
short, stout, placed a little behind the centre of equilibrium ;
tibia bare for a short space ; tarsus considerably compressed,
reticulated with small angular scales. Hind toe very small.

CYGNUS. SWAN. 651

elevated, compressed beneath ; anterior toes longer than the
tarsus, the outer a little shorter than the third, all reticulate
as far as the second joint, then scutellate ; the inner with a
broad, somewhat two-lobed margin, that of the outer thick
and narrow; the interdigital memljrancs reticulate, full.
Claws strong, arched, compressed, convex above, rather ob-
tuse, that of the third toe with the inner side expanded and
the tip rounded.

Plumage moderately full, close, firm, unless on the head
and neck. Feathers of the head very small and oblong, of
the neck narrow and soft, of the other parts ovate and
rounded. The scapulars large ; the humerals eight or ten.
The wings very long, rather broad, convex, with about
thirty-two quills ; the outer four or five quills more or less
cut out toward the end, the second and third longest, the
first little shorter ; the secondaries broad and rounded. The
tail is short, rounded, of from eighteen to twenty-four rather
broad, rounded feathers. In each species the number is not
very definite. Thus, in Cygnus Bewickii, it is generally
eighteen, but sometimes twenty.

The Swans inhabit chiefly the temperate and cold regions
of the globe. Eight species are known, of which some have
a bare fleshy knob at the base of the upper mandible above,
while in others that part is flat or concave. Another remark-
able diffcTence occurs Avitli respect to the trachea, which in
some follows the usual course, while in others it first enters
the sternum, forming a loop, in the same manner as in the
Cranes. Notwithstanding these diflerences, it seems inju-
dicious to separate the group into distinct genera, as the
species otherwise agree in all essential respects. Nor do
their habits appear to be affected by these modifications of
structure. Hence we may infer that in other cases, when
two birds resemble each other in fonn, the presence of a
frontal knob in one is not sufiicient to induce its generic
separation. Similar differences in the windpipe occur in the
genus Platalea.

The Swans reside in marshes, on lakes, pools, and rivers.
They frequently search fur food in the pastures close to the
water, walking slowly and heavily ; but in general they

652 CYGNUS. SWAN.

obtain it while swimming. It consists of soft grass, seeds,
and especially the roots and stems of grasses and other
plants, which they pull up from the mud, immersing their
long necks for the purpose, elevating the hind part of the
body, and maintaining their position by means of their feet,
in the same manner as the Geese and graminivorous Ducks.
Like the former, they utter a hissing sound when irritated,
and strike with their wings. They float rather lightly, sw im
with considerable speed, but are incapable of diving. In
swimming they sometimes keep the neck erect, like the
Geese, and sometimes curved, like the Ducks. Their flight
is direct,, strong, rapid, with short undulating movements of
their outstretched wings, the neck extended to its full
length. During their migrations they usually fly at a vast
height, in files or angular lines, the individual at the head
of the string retiring to the rear after a time. Their cries
are loud, trumpet-like, and, when proceeding from a dis-
tance, clear, mellow, and resembling the sounds from a
distant band of music. They are described as having a
peculiarly exciting eflect on the human mind, especially in
desert regions, and to give rise to the most agreeable feelings
in those who depend chiefly upon the chase for their sub-
sistence. This I can well understand, having experienced
the like on seeing and hearing a flock of Wild Swans in
the Hebrides. They are at all seasons gregarious. The
nest, very bulky, and composed of grass and herbage, Avith
fragments of turf, peat, or other light substances, is placed
on the gi'ound, in marshes or on islands. The eggs, ellip-
tical, and generally of a greenish-grey tint, are not very
numerous. The male remains with the female and young,
and after the breeding season the families unite into flocks.
The Swans moult only once in the year, in the end of
summer. The sexes are coloured alike ; the young at first
grey ; the males lai-ger than the females. Their flesh, as an
article of food, is similar to that of the Geese, but is not
now held in much esteem, although that of young indi-
viduals is tender and sapid, having a peculiar rich flavour.

The Common Tame Swan, Cygnus Olor, is admitted by
Mr. Yarrell into the scries of British Birds ; but, as there

CYONUS. SWAN. 653

appears no evidence of its having ever been shot or caught,
in a truly wild state, in any part of Britain, I am con-
strained to omit it. I have known an instance of its occur-
rence, during a snow-storm, on the coast, in the neighbour-
hood of Aberdeen ; but as tame Swans often wander in
stormy weather, and in many cases arc scarcely half domes-
ticated, I do not see how a truly wild individual could be
recognized.

654

CYGNUS IMMUTABILIS. CHANGELESS SWAN.

POLISH SWAN.

Cygnus immutabilis. Polish Swan. Yarrell. Proceed, of Zool. Soc. p. 9

Brit. Birds. III. 131.
Cygnus immutabilis. Bonap. Comp. List, 55.

Adult male about sixty inches in length ; ninety-eight in
extent of wings ; bill from the joint to the tip of the upper
mandible four inches and two-twelfths, from the knob three
and a half, from the eye five and four-twelfths, its greatest
breadth one and four-and-a-half-tn-clfths ; the forehead ele-
vated, with a compressed, fleshy, wrinkled lobe occupying the
upper hasal angle of the bill ; tarsus four inches and a quarter;
middle toe five inches and eight-tn-clftJts, its claw an inch ; tail
of twenty-four feathers, rounded ; bare space on the forehead
and between the eyes and bill black; the bill orange-red, except
the unguis, which is black, and of a narrow oblong form ; feet
dull grey ; plumage pure white. Female similar to the male,
but considerably smaller. Young white in their first plumage.

INI.^LE IN Winter. — The following description is taken
from an individual, kept for some time in the Edinburgh
Zoological Garden, but respecting the capture of which I can
obtain no other iufonnation than that afforded by its fractured
and reunited humerus, which shows that it has probably been
shot.

The body is of an elongated form, rather depressed ; the
neck extremely long and slender ; the head rather small,
oblong, compressed, anteriorly elevated above, and furnished
in front with a thick bulging compressed fleshy knob,
covered with corrugated skin. The bill is longer than the
head, straight, of nearly equal breadth throughout ; the

CHANGELESS SWAN. 655

tipper mandible with its outline declinate and concave, at the
end docurved, the sides sli^litly sloped at the base, gradually
more iucliucd and convex toward the end, tlie edj^es soft and
marginate, with the lamelhr projecting a little, the unguis
oblong, broud at tlie end, convex, decurved, strong-edged;
the lower mandible very slightly rearcuate, its unguis trian-
gular.

On the concave roof of the mouth is a medial series of
large flattened tubercles, and on each side at the base an
oblique row of similar tubercles, then a lateral series of very
slendtu, inconspicuous elevated lines and grooves, and fifty-
two marginal lamella?, of which the outer extremities are
compressed and obtuse. On the lower mandible are about
fifty external lamelhe, of which about twenty-two only are
very distinct, and ninety marginal lamella\ The tongue is
three inches and a quarter in len<^th, ten-twelfths in breadth,
fleshy, with the sides parallel, the base with a double semi-
circular series of conical papillie, a large soft prominence
above, a deep medial groove having on each side flat, acute,
spreading papillee, the edges fringed with papilhie, of which
the posterior are large, the anterior small, and an inferior
series of filaments, extending behind the base of the tongue.
The oesophagus, thirty-eight inches long, varies in width from
eight-twelfths to an inch and a quarter, being dilated at the
lower part of the neck. The proventriculus is an inch and
eight-twelfths in breadth. The stomach is obliquely situated,
three inches and a half in length, four inches and a quarter
in breadth, a little compressed, less oblong than in the other
species, with extremely developed lateral muscles, very large
tendons, and rugous epithelium, with two concave grinding
surfaces. The intestine is sixteen feet and a half in length ;
its duodenal part an inch in width, the rest six-twelfths.
The duodenum curves at the distance of eight inches, and
receives the gall-ducts at that of twenty. The rectum is nine
inches and a half in length, at first nine-twelfths in width, at
the end dilated to an inch and a half. The ccEca are fifteen
inches long, for five inches only two-twelfths and a half wide,
then enlarged to ten-twelfths, and toward the end decreasing
to five-twelfths.

(356 CYGNUS IMMUTABILIS.

The trachea, on reaching the intrafurcular space, forms a
slight curve outwards, and then directly enters the thorax.
Its width at first is seven-twelfths, tlien six-twelfths, at the
lower part <jf the neck ninc-twolfths. It is composed of a
hundred and ninety rings, and five united rings forming the
inferior laryngeal bone, Avhich is moderately compressed, its
breadth being six-twelfths, and its posterior margin, Mhich
is very oblique, almost an inch in height. It diifers from
that of the other species in having the terminal margin thus
oblique, and in wanting the external, lateral, narrow, free
membranes, there being in this species none besides those
intervening between the last tracheal and first bronchial
rings, about the middle of which, however, is seen the very
slender bone appended to the narrow membrane in the others.
The bronchi are very short, only an inch and a half in length,
Mitli fifteen incomplete, slender, and feeble rings.

The skin at the base of the bill, including the frontal
knob, and the large triangular space from the lateral base of
the upper mandible to the eye, and surrounding it, is bare.
The nostrils are oblong, patulous, seven-twelfths in length,
in the lower anterior part of the oblong nasal sinus. The
eyes are very small, their aperture measuring five-twelfths
and a half. The legs are very short and strong ; the tibia
bare for an inch and a quarter ; the tarsus compressed and
reticulate. The first toe very small, with an inferior slight,
compressed lobe, reticulated above, but having also four scu-
tella ; the second toe with eighteen, the third twenty-five, the
fourth thirty-one scutella ; the inner Avith a broad margin or
web ; the intcrdigital membranes full. The claws stout,
moderately arcuate, rather obtuse, that of the middle toe
dilated and rounded.

The plumage rather full, dense, soft, and elastic ; on the
head and neck the feathers oblong, obtuse, blended ; on the
other parts ovato-oblong. The wings are very long, of mode-
rate breadth, convex ; the quills thirty-five ; the primaries
strong, decurved, the outer three strongly sinuate on the
inner web, the second and third longest and about equal. The
tail is short, rounded, of twenty-four feathers.

The bill is orange-red, with the margins of the upper

CHANGELESS SWAN. 657

mandibles and unguis black ; the lower mandible yellow in
the middle only. The bare space at the base of the tail
black. The feet dusky grey, on the inner side liglit grey; the
membranes darker ; tlic claws brownish-black, pale at the
base. The plumage pure white.

Length to end of tail G4 inches ; extent of wings 96 ; wing
from flexure i25 ; tail 8 ; bill from joint 4^ ; from the knob
3^ ; from the eye 5-,^ ; its heiglit at the base, including the
knob 2-pij ; breadth l^^; tarsus 4^ ; first toe 1^, its claw y-^ ;
second toe 4^, its claw 1 ; third toe 5-j^, its claw \^ ; fourth
toe 5-j^, its claw \^-.

Female. — There having been a great mortality among
the birds of the Zoological Garden in Edinburgh, I obtained
in March, 1841, an inspection of a female, the mate or com-
panion of the male above described. As represented by that
individual, the female differs from the male only in being
smaller, and in having but a very slight protuberance in place
of the elevated knob at the base of the bill. The bare space
between it and the eye is greyish-black ; the bill orange-red,
with the nasal space, the margins and unguis of the upper
mandible, and a great part of the lower, black. The bare
part of the tibia, the tarsus, and the toes, arc pale bluish-grey;
the Mcbs blackish-grey ; the claws black, light-coloured at the
base. The plumage Avhite.

Length to end of tail 58 inches ; extent of wings 88 ;
wing from flexure 22 ; tail 7| ; bill from the joint along the
ridge 3-j^ ; from the eye 5-^ ; its height at the base l-^^ ;
breadth at the base 1-j^ ; middle l^ ; behind the unguis
l-j3j; bare part of the tibia 1^ ; tarsus 4-^; hind toe l-j^^, its
claw -^ ; second toe 4-jij, its claw \^ ; third toe 5-j^, its claw
■fS- ; fourth toe 5^, its claw -j^.

Habits. — This species which, being very similar to the
Common or Tamo Swan, had been confounded with it, was
first distinguished and described by Mr. Yarrell. He states
that " the London dealers in birds have long been in the
habit of receiving from the Baltic a large Swan, which they
distinguish by the name of the Polish Swan." " During the

T T

658 CYGXUS IMMUTABILIS.

severe weather of January, 1838, several flocks of these Polish
Swans were seen pursuing a southern course along the line of
our north-east coast, from Scotland to the mouth of the
Thames, and several specimens were obtained. The circum-
stance of these flocks being seen, without any observable dif-
ference in the specimens obtained, all of which were distinct
from our ]Mutc Swan ; the fact also, that the Cygnets, as far
as observed, were of a pure white colour, hke the parent birds,
and did not assimic, at any age, the grey colour borne for the
greater part of the first two years by the young of the other
species of Swans ; and an anatomical distinction in the form
of the cranium, which was described by Mr. Pelerin in the
Ma"-azine of Natural Ilistorv, induced me to consider this
Swan entitled to rank as a distinct species, and, in reference
to the unchangeable colour of the plumage, I proposed for it
the name of Cygnus immutabilis."

659

CYGNUS MUSICUS. THE WHOOPING SWAN.

HOOPER. WLD SWAIf. WHISTLING SWAN. ELK.

Fia. 59.

Anas Cygnus ferus. Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 194,

Anas Cygnus. Lath. Ind. Ornith. IL 833.

"WTiistling or Wild Swan. Mont. Ornith. Diet, and Supplt.

Cygne a bee jaune ou sauvage. Anas Cygnus. Temm. ]Man. d'Orn. IL 828

Whistling Swan. Cygnus ferus. Selby, Illustr. IL 278.

Cygnus ferus. "WTiistling Swan. Jenyns, Brit. Yert. Anim. 227.

Cygnus musicus. Bonap. Comp. List, 55,

Adult male about sixty inches long, ninety-Jive in extent of
wings; bill from the joint to the tip of the upper mandible
three inches and a half, its greatest ividth about the middle an
inch and a quarter; from the eye to the tip of the bill five

660 CYGNUS MUSICUS,

inches and two-twelfths; tarsus four inches and tu'o-twelfths ;
middle toe four inches and ten- twelfths, its claw an inch; tail
of ticenty feathers, rounded ; hare space on the forehead, and
heticeen the eyes and hill, hright yellow, as is the hase of hoth
mandihles, that colour extending in an angidar form on the
sides of the upper mandihles to hcyond, the nostrils; feet
black; plumage pure white, the head tinged with orange-red.
Female similar to the male, hut considerably smaller. Young
u-ith the hill dusky at the end, reddish toward the base, the
partially hare skin at its base fie sh- colour / the feet reddish-
grey; the plumage pale bluish-grey.

Male. — The body of this, the largest wild bird, except
the Polish Swan, that occurs in Britain, is of an elliptical,
rather elongated, and somewhat depressed form ; the neck
extremely long and slender ; the head of moderate size,
oblong, compressed. The bill is rather longer than the
head, straight, higher than broad at the base, gradually de-
pressed, of nearly equal breadth throughout, being very
slightly narrower toward the end ; upper mandible with the
dorsal line, not incliuling the space behind the joint, de-
scending, and almost sraight to the unguis, then decurved,
the ridge broad and flat at the base, gradually narrowed,
beyond the nostrils convex, the sides nearly erect and some-
what concave at the base, gradually sloping and becoming
more convex, the margins soft, the unguis large, obovato-
triangular, convex, thick-edged, and internally grooved.
The lower mandible with the intercrural space very long
and of moderate width, its membrane bare for more than
two-thirds, the crura convex beneath, with their lower out-
line very slightly re-arcuate, the laminated margins incli-
nate, the unguis very large, obovato-triangular, little convex,
with a wide groove on each side ; the gape-Une slightly
re-arcuate.

The upper mandililo d(^oply concave, with a medial pro-
minent papillate ridge, and on each side an oblique series of
transverse flattened tubercles, a submarginal series of incon-
sjiicuous slender lamella^, and a marginal scries of transverse,
more or less obHquc, slender, little elevated, obtusely termi-

WHOOPING SWAN. 661

nated lamellae, not projecting beyond the margin. The lower
mandible has an external and an internal series of lamella.

The mouth is an inch and four-twelfths in width. The
tongue three inches and two-twelfths long, ten-twelfths in
breadth, fleshy, with the sides parallel ; the base with a
double row of conical papilla.* arranged in a circular manner,
and a soft large prominence above ; the upper surface with a
deep longitudinal median groove, having on each side acute,
flat, spreading papilla; ; the edges fringed with flattened
tapering papillae, of which the posterior are large and serru-
late, the anterior small, together with an inferior series of
filamentary papilla?. Behind the aperture of the glottis a
large pad of acuminate papillae. The cesophagus is thirty
inches long, very narrow, about half an inch in width, but
at the lower part of the neck dilated into a peculiar kind of
crop, averaging an inch in width, and in this individual
compactly filled with roots and blades of Zostera marina ;
the proventriculus an inch and a half in breadth. The
stomach, obliquely situated, is an extremely developed giz-
zard, of an elliptical form, three inches and a fourth in
length, five inches in breadth, the right lateral muscle two
inches thick, the left an inch and three-fourths ; the epithe-
lium thick, dense, with two smoothish, considerably concave
grinding surfaces. There is a large pyloric sac. The intes-
tine, thirteen feet long, has a width of from an inch to
eight-twelfths, and forms sixteen turns. The duodenum, in
curving along the edge of the stomach, forms three-fourths
of a circle. The rectum is ten inches in length, enlarges
from nine-twelfths to an inch and three-fourths, Avhich is
the width of the cloaca. The coeca are thirteen inches and
a half long, for four inches about three-twelfths wide, then
enlarging to one inch, and toward the end diminishing to
four-twelfths.

The trachea, three feet two inches in length, has at first
a breadth of nine-twelfths, gradually contracts to six-twelfths,
then enlarges to eight-twelfths, and is considerably flattened
until about six inches from the furcula, when it becomes
nearly cylindrical, seven-twelfths in diameter, enters a cavity
formed in the crest of the sternum, along which it passes to

662 CYGNUS MUSICUS.

the length of three inches and a half, bends upon itself ver-
tically, returns, emerges from the cavity, bends upwards and
backwards, and ends on the anterior edge of the sternum.
In this part it is cylindrical, at first seven-twelfths and a
half in width, on emerging ten-twelfths. The inferior lar^-nx,
composed of several united rings, is laterally much com-
pressed, measuring in height an inch and two-twelfths, and
in breadth only two-twelfths. Appended to the last or
semilunar ring on each side is a narrow membrane, to which
is attached an extremely slender half-ring. Within this
small membrane, and separate from it, is a large membrane
extending to the first bronchial ring. The bronchi, com-
posed of about thirty branched bony rings, curiously united
by processes so as to have a reticulated appearance, are very
large, and four inches in length ; for two inches seven or
eight-twelfths in diameter, then enlarged to nine-twelfths,
and ultimately contracted to four-twelfths. The rings of
the trachea are osseous, firm, flattened, alternately narrowed
on one side, in the part within the sternal cavity much
broader, thinner, and anchylosing like the bronchial rings,
but in a less degree. The lateral or contractor muscles do
not accompany that part which enters the sterniun, but pass
over to join it as it emerges, and continue to the commence-
ment of the large terminal compressed ring, at which place
come off the sterno-tracheales. The inferior larynx thus has
no muscles.

The nostrils are oblong, seven-twelfths in length, direct,
medial, in the lower anterior part of the oblong nasal sinus.
The eyes are very small, their aperture measuring five-
twelfths. That of the ear round, four-twelfths in diameter.
The legs are short, very stout ; the tibia very muscular, bare
for an inch and four-twelfths ; the tarsus short, considerably
compressed, reticuhited witli angular scales, of which the
anterior are large and rounded ; the hind toe very diminu-
tive, and not reaching the ground ; the middle toe longer
than the tarsus ; the outer much longer than the inner, and
reticulated to the third joint, the inner as far as the second
joint, the middle toe nearly as far ; the hind toe with four
scutella, the inner with twenty, the next thirty-five, and the

WHOOPING SWAN. 668

outer twenty-five ; the interdigital webs full, reticulate, the
inarfrinal web of the inner toe slightly bilobate. The claws
are strong, arched, compressed, convex above, rather acute,
that of the middle toe with the inner edge dilated and the
tip rounded.

A portion of the forehead, and the space between the bill
and the eyes denuded. The plumage rather full, dense, soft,
elastic ; on the head and neck the feathers oblong, obtuse,
blended, and very soft ; on the lower parts rather small,
much curved, ovato-oblong ; on the upper parts larger,
broader, and little curved ; the scapulars large. The wings
are very long, of moderate breadth, convex ; the humerus and
cubitus proportionally longer ; the quills thirty -live, together
with eight humerals ; the primaries strong, dccurved, the
outer three strongly sinuate on the inner web, the first eight-
twelfths shorter than the second, which exceeds the third by
two-twelfths. When the wing is closed, some of the inner
secondaries extend considerably beyond the longest primary.
The tail is very short, rounded, of twenty stilfish rounded
feathers, of which the lateral are an inch and three fourths
shorter than the medial.

The bare space on the forehead, and from the base of the
upper mandible to the eyes, is bright yellow, as is the basal
part of the bill, that colour occupying about an inch of the
ridge, and passing in a pointed form along the sides of the
upper mandible to beyond the nostrils ; part of the base of
the lower mandible, and its intercrural membrane, also yel-
low; the rest of the bill black. The iris brown. The feet
and claws black. The plumage entirely pure white.

Length to end of tail 60 inches ; extent of wings 95 ;
wing from flexure 25^ ; tail 7^ ; bill along the ridge, includ-
ing the bare space on the forehead 4-j3j, from its tip to the
eye-joint 3^, to the eye 6^, its height at the joint 1^^, breadth
at the middle 1^^, toward the end 1-fj ; bare part of tibia l-fV*
tarsus 4^^ ; first toe -{'-^, its claw -^ ; second toe 3^, its claw 1 ;
third toe o-^; its claw 1-^ ; fourth toe 4-f^, its claw -L^.

Female. — The female differs from the male only in being
smaller.

664 CYGNUS MUSICUS.

Length to end of tail 56 inches ; extent of wings 88 ; bill
along the ridge, from the joint 3-^, to the eye O-jV ; tarsus 4 ;
middle toe and claw (>}^.

An individual killed in the south of Scotland, in February
1841, had the oesophagus twenty-eight inches in length,
about half an inch in width, at the lower part of the neck
enlarged to an inch, then contracted ; the proventriculus an
inch and a half in breadth. The stomach obhquely situated,
transversely elliptical, three inches and two-twelfths in
length, five inches in breadth. The intestine eleven feet and
a half long ; the widest part of the duodenum one inch, gra-
dually contracting to eight-tAvelfths, and in some parts half
an inch. The coeca are, one eleven inches and a half, the
other twelve inches in length, their width for four inches
three-twelfths, then enlarged to ten-twelfths, toward the end
contracting to four-twelfths, and finally three-twelfths. The
rectum is nine inches long, at first ten-twelfths wide, gra-
dually enlarging to an inch and three-fourths. The intestine
is simply convoluted in an oblique direction, with sixteen
turns. The duodenimi returns on itself at the distance of
eight inches and a half, and receives the biliary ducts at that
of nineteen inches.

The trachea, having at its lower part a diameter of seven-
twelfths, enters the crest of the sternum to the depth of three
inches, returns, and terminates on the edge of the sternum,
in an extremely compressed inferior larynx, of which the
narrowest part is only two-twelfths-and-a-quarter in breadth,
the lower edge being one inch in height. The structure of
this part is the same as in the male. The bronchi are four
inches and a quarter in length, at first eight-twelfths in
height and four-twelfths in breadth, then round and five-
twelfths in diameter, afterwards suddenly enlarged to nine-
twelftlis, and finally contracted ; the number of rings forty-
two, slender, and most of them anchyloscd.

The extreme compression of the inferior larynx, and the
elongated bronclii, arc ])eculiar to this species, and by these
characters, together with the entrance of the trachea into the
crest of the sternum to the distance of from three to four

WHOOPING SWAN. 665

inches only, never into its hind part, the bird may always be
distinguished.

Length to end of tail 52 inches ; extent of wings 85 ; wing
from flexure 23^ ; tail 7^ ; bill along the ridge, including
the bare space on the forehead 4^, from its tip to the joint 3^,
to the eye 4-|4 ; its height at the joint of upper mandible 1-j^,
breadth toward the end 1^ ; bare part of tibia IjV; tarsus 4;
hind toe ^7, its claw -^ ; second toe 3-j5y, its claw ^ ;
third toe 4-^, its claw -^ ; fourth toe 4f , its claw -j^.

Variations. — Adult individuals vary in size, and in
having the head white or tinged with dull orange-red. The
size of the stomach, and the length of the digestive organs, as
well as the diameter of the trachea, and the extent to which
it enters the crest of the sternum, also vary.

Habits. — As this species was not until recently distin-
guished from two others, the one belonging to Europe, the
other to North Amenca, its habits and distribution as given
by authors cannot be considered as satisfactorily known.
Formerly it was considered certain that it regularly visited
the Orkney Islands, and some of the outer Hebrides, on
which it remained during the winter ; but until it be ascer-
tained that this species, and not Bewick's Swan, is the one
which frequents these Islands, we can only say that they are
visited by wild Swans, probably of both species. I have seen,
in Harris, a flock come in from the Atlantic after a gale, and
listened with delight to their loud and clear trumpet-like cries,
as they sped their way in lengthened files ; but whether they
were of this species or not I cannot affirm. In South Uist a
vast number remain from October to May on some of the
lakes, and in Lewis and Harris they are frequently seen in
winter ; but these are certainly not the birds that in severe
weather are found dispersed over Scotland and England. In
England, when the winter is mild, few, or perhaps none, may
be met with, whereas in boisterous weather they appear in
flocks, dispersed here and there, chiefly on the estuaries and
rivers. It is the same in Scotland, where in some seasons
great numbers are killed, and they may be procured even in

666 CYGNUS MUSICUS.

the markets, while at other times the ornithologist who wishes
to obtaiu a recent specimen will fail in his endeavours.
Under these circumstances, it appears that very little can be
said of the peculiar habits of this species. The substances
which I have found in its stomach were roots and rhizomata,
together with some herbage, and, in the case of the adult
male described above, which I obtained in February 1838,
the roots and leaves of Zostera. Along Avith the food is
always found a large quantity of fine quartz sand. Instead
of fairly admitting their utter ignorance of the habits of this
bird, our ornithologists interlard its obscure and imperfect
history with conjectures and disquisitions of various kinds.
Mr. Thomson, however, who states that it visits Ireland
occasionally in winter, gives a good deal of information
respecting its habits ; and Mr. St. John, in his Wild Sports
of the Highlands, has an excellent description of the manners
of Wild Swans in Scotland.

Montagu relates that a female AYhistling Swan, shot near
Bridgewater in 1805, got the better of her wound, and was
kept by Mr. Stone with his Geese for nearly two years, in
Avhich time she laid an egg. That gentleman presented her
to the naturalist, who thus further details her history : —
" This beautiful and docile bird is noAv alive and in high
health, living with many sorts of Ducks in the greatest
harmony. Towards the spring she becomes more clamorous,
and impatient of confinement ; but at all times will approach
those persons in the habit of feeding her, and will take food
from the hand, at the same time uttering those plaintive and
hannonious notes for which the species has been remarkable,
and which are always attended with a singular jerk of the
head. She usually carries her neck straight and erect, either
upon the water or when stationary on land ; but in walking
the head is lowered, and the neck reclining over the back.
In the season of love she frequently flaps along the surface of
the water, and would undoubtedly fly, if the precaution of
annually cutting tlie feathers of one wing was omitted, for
whatever might have been the wound that was the cause of
captivity, nature has perfornu'd a perfect cme. Her nature
is gentle, timid, and sociable ; she will follow those with

WHOOPING SWAN. 667

whom she is acquainted from one side of the menagerie to
tlie other, especially ladies of the family dressed in white ; is
often turned out of her course by a pu^acious male Shiel-
drake, and acts only offensively when food is the object, and
then only when resentment is not expected. She eats but
little grass on land, but will devour aquatic plants occasion-
ally. Barley, however, is her principal food, and she never
attempts to touch bread, which is sometimes thrown to other
birds ; nor will she devour small fish, Avhich some of the
diving Ducks greedily eat.

" The egg is very small in proportion to the bird, being
not near so large as that of a China Goose, and is regularly
oval, about three inches long, and of a ferruginous colour,
with some white blotches about the middle, appearing as if
artificially stained." This, however, was an egg produced
\nider unfavourable circumstances ; for, as described by Mr.
Jenyns, the egg is " dull white, faintly tinged with greenish,
four inches one line in length, two inches eight lines in
breadth."

Dr. Edmondston represents it as an occasional visitant in
Shetland in autumn and spring. Messrs. Baikie and Heddle
state that " Swans arrive in Orkney in October, and remain
until the end of March. When there has been a severe
winter north, they are occasionally seen so late as the end
of April. During the severe season of 1838, several Swans
Avere found dead, probably from the extreme cold. While
here they frequent the loch of S tennis, and are also abun-
dant in Ronsay, in Sanday, and some other islands. For-
merly they used to breed on some of the small islets in the
loch of S tennis, but they have not been known to breed
there for many years." Mr. St. John states that they frequent
the estuary of the Findhorn, and feed in various retired
places of Morayshire. They are also sometimes seen on the
loch of Spynie, near Elgin. I have seen specimens of this
species killed at Peterhead, New Deer, Fy vie, Aberdeen, and
Montrose. Swans often appear on the Loch of Strathbeg,
the Lochs of Skene, Achlossan, and Cannar, in Aberdeen-
shire ; not unfrequently in the Basin of Montrose, and in
severe winters in the estuary of the Tay.

668 CYGNUS MUSICUS.

Young. — The young are brown in their plumage for the
first year. One examined on the 6th of March, 1809, and
which measured three feet eight inches in length, and
weighed eight pounds and a quarter, had the bill flesh-colour
at the base ; the irides dusky ; the feathers on the forehead
and before the eyes dull orange ; the rest of the head and
upper neck behind, brown ; the under parts white, tinged
with rufous ; the lower neck behind, the upper parts of the
body, scapulars, coverts, and tail, cinereous-grey.

6G9

CYGNTJS BEWICKII. BEWICK'S SWAN.

New species of Swan. Wingate. Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. North. Durh. and

Newcastle I. 1.
Cygnus Bewickii. Yarrel, Trans. Linn, Soc. XYI. 445.
Cygnus Bewickii. Selby, Trans. Nat. Hist. North. Soc. Durh. and Newc.

I. 17.
Cygnus Bewickii. Wingate, Bewick's Swan. Jard. and Selb. Illustr. of

Omith. II. pi. xcv.
Cygne de Bewick. Cygnus Bewickii. Temm. Man. d'Om. IV. 527.
Bewick's Swan. Cygnus Bewickii. Selby, Illustr. II. 284.
Cygnus Bewickii. Bewick's Swan. Jenyns, Brit. Vert. Anim. 228.
Cygnus Bewickii. Bonap. Comp. List, 55.

Male about forty-Jive inches long ; seventy-two in extent of
wings ; hill from the joint to the tip of the upper mandible
three inches, its greatest breadth toicard the end an inch and
a twelfth ; from the eye to the tip of the hill four inches and
five-twelfths ; tarsus three inches and nine-twelfths / middle
toe four inches and a half, its claw ten-twelfths ; tail of
twenty {of ten eighteen^ feathers, much rounded ; bare space on
the forehead, and between the eyes and bill, bright yellow, as
is the base of the upper mandible, that colour extending in an
angidar form, hut not 7'eaching the 7iostrils ; feet black ;
plumage pure white, the head and neck tinged with orange-red.
Female similar to the male, but considei'ably smaller. Young
with the bill dusky at the end, flesh-coloured toward the base,
the partially bare skin at its base flesh-colour ; the feet reddish-
grey ; the plumage pale bluish-grey, the upper part of the
head darker.

Male in Winter. — This species, which is about a third
less than the Whooping Swan, diiFers little from it in its
general appearance, but presents pecuharities by which it may
easily be distinguished. The body is of an ovato-elliptical
form, rather depressed, especially at its fore part ; the neck

670 CYGNUS BEWICKII.

extremely long and slender ; the head of moderate size,
oblong, compressed. The bill is slightly longer than the
head, straight, higher than broad at the base, gradually de-
pressed, of almost equal breadth throughout, very slightly
enlarged near the end, -which is rounded. The upper man-
dible has the dorsal line sloping, the ridge at first broad and
flattened, gradually narroAved, toward the end convex, the
luiguis broadly obovate, large, and convex, the edges soft,
marginate. The lower mandible with the intercrural space
very long, and of moderate width, its membrane bare for two-
thirds, the crura convex beneath, with their lower outline
slightly rearcuate, the laminated margine inclinate, the unguis
very large, obovato-clliptical ; the gape-line slightly rearcuate.
The upper mandible deeply concave, with a medial tuber-
culate ridge, and on each side an oblique series of flattened
tubercles, a sub-marginal series of inconspicuous slender
lamellae, and a marginal series of about thii-ty-five oblique,
slender, little elevated, obtusely terminated lamellae, not pro-
jecting beyond the margin. The lower mandible has about
twenty-two external, and sixty internal lamellre. The tongue
is two inches and seven-twelfths in length, nine-twelfths in
breadth, fleshy, ^^■ith the sides parallel, at the base a double
row of conical papillae arranged in a somewhat semi-circular
manner, a large soft prominence near the base, a deep medial
groove, having on each side acute, flat, spreading papillae ;
the edges thin, fringed with tapering flattened papillae, of
which the anterior are small, the posterior large and serrulate ;
and beneath this series a smaller of filamentary papillae,
extending behind the base of the tongue. The oesophagus
extremely long and slender, its length twenty-six inches, for
fifteen inches its width eight inches, tlien dilated for a short
space to ten-twelfths, and within the thorax contracting to
five-twelfths. The ])roventriculus two inches long, and an
inch and two-twelths in its greatest breadth. The gizzard
oblique, sub-elliptical, sub-compressed, two inches and a half
in length, three inches and three-fourths in breadth ; with
extremely thick muscles, very large tendons, and rugous epi-
thelium, having two slightly concave gi-inding surfaces. The
intestine eight feet and a half in length, ten-twelfths in width

BEWICK'S SAVAN. 671

ill part of the duodenum, gradually contracting to five-twelfths.
The coeca come off at the distance of seven inches from the
extremity, and are ten inches in length, at the commence-
ment two-twelfths and a half in width, their greadest breadth
eight-twelfths, narrowed to four-twelfths.

The trachea at first eight-twelfths in hreadth, contracts to
five-twelfths, then enlarges to seven-twelfths ; it is consider-
ably flattened until near the furcula, when it becomes cylin-
drical, enters a cavity fonned in the crest of the sternum, and
is continued into a vacant space beyond it, and extending to
"within half an inch of the posterior extremity of the bone, in
which it forms a horizontal loop, returns, becomes vertical,
and curving in the furcula enters the thorax to the length of
three inches. The inferior larynx, composed of several united
rings, is laterally compressed, measuring at the end in height
an inch, and in breadth six-twelfths. Appended to the last
or semi-lunar ring on each side is a narrow membrane, to
which is attached an extremely slender half-ring. Within
this small membrane is a larger extending to the first bron-
chial ring. The bronchi, composed of about twenty thin
bony rings, some of which are united by processes, are two
inches in length, enlarged beyond the middle into a some-
what globular sac, half an inch in breadth, and ultimately
contracted to four-twelfths.

The nostrils are oblongo-elliptical, five-twelfths and a
half in length, direct, medial. The aperture of the eyes four-
twelfths and a half. The legs are short, very stout ; the tibia
bare for an inch and a quarter ; the tarsus considerably com-
pressed, reticulated ; the hind toe very diminutive, the outer
reticulated to the third joint, the middle toe nearly as far as
the second joint, the inner to that joint, their scutella respec-
tively thirty-five, thirty-three, and twenty ; the membranes
full. The claws of moderate size, strong, arched, compressed,
rather acute, that of the middle toe with its inner edge
dilated, and the tip rounded.

A portion of the forehead, and the space from the bill to
the eyes, and margining them, bare. The jdumage as in the
other species ; the wings very long, with thirty-three quills,
the second and tliird equal and longest, the outer three deeply

675 CYGNUS BEWICKII.

sinuate on the inner web ; the tail short, much rounded, of
twenty feathers.

The bill is black, with the exception of a bright yellow
triangular space on each side at the base, not extending so
far forward as the nostrils ; the bare skin at its base orange-
yellow. The iris brown. The feet black. The plumage
pure white ; the head and neck tinged with reddish-yellow.

Length to end of tail 45 inches ; extent of wings 74 ;
■wing from flexure 20^ ; tail 5 5 ; bill along the ridge 3^ ;
from the joint 3 ; from the eye to the tip 5-^ ; its height at
the base 1 jV ; its breadth near the end 1^ ; bare part of
tibia l-jSj- ; tarsus l-^^ ; hind toe -^, its claw ^ ; second toe
3-5^, its claw ^ ; third toe 4^, its claw if ; fourth toe 4^,
its claw -j^.

Female. — The female is similar to the male, but smaller.
The digestive organs of an individual examined in Edinburgh,
in January, 1836, were as folloAvs : — The tongue tw^o inches and
a half in length, three-fouiths in breadth. The oesophagus
twenty-five inches long, for fifteen inches and a half averag-
ing half an inch in width, but in two places dilated to ten-
twelfths, and at the lower part of the neck forming a kind of
diminutive crop ; within the thorax contracted to three-
twelfths ; the proventriculus two inches long, and one inch
in its greatest breadth. The gizzard three inches and a half
in breadth, two and a quarter in length, sub-elliptical, convex
on the sides, with the edges rather thin. Immediately after
the pylorus the intestine enlarges to half an inch, soon
after to three-fourths, and so continues to the entrance of the
biliary ducts, at eleven inches from the pylorus, after which
it gradually contracts to the coeca, where it is four-twelfths and
a half. The rectum, at the commencement six-twelfths and
a half in width, gradually enlarges, and at the end forms an
oblong cloaca. The coeca come off at the distance of six
inches and a half from the end ; one is nine inches and a half
in length, the other eight, at the commencement only two-
twelfths in breadth, but enlarging to seven-twelfths, then
gradually narrowing to four-twelfths, their termination
rounded ; one much smaller there than the other. The heart

BEWICK'S SWAN. 673

two inches and ten-twelfths in length, two inches and
three-fourths in hreadth at the hase. The right lobe of
the liver three inches and a half, the left two and a half in
length.

TIk! dimensions of this individual, if taken at the time,
have been lost.

IIahits. — This species had been confounded with the
Common Wild .Swan until Mr. Kichard Wingate of New-
castle-on-Tyne, in a paper read before the Literary and Phi-
losophical Society of that city, showed the difference between
the two species, which were further particularly described by
Mr. Yarrell, who disclosed the anatomical differences between
them, and by Mr. Selby. Subsequently, it was considered
the same as the smaller species of Swan common in many
parts of North America, which, however, has been shown to
be distinct by Dr. J. T. Sharpless of Philadelphia, in an
elaborate paper published in the twenty-second volume of the
American Journal of Science and Arts. These circumstances
I here mention only as introductory to the remark, that the
habits of Bewick's Swan, although they may not differ
materially from those of either Cygnus musicus or Cygnus
Americanus, have not hitherto been made a subject of obser-
vation. Since its discovery it has been frequently shot in
England, and in several instances found in collections. In
1836 I had an adult female, and in 1838 a male, both ob-
tained in Edinburgh, and no doubt shot in Scotland. All
that I can learn respecting its habits is, that it appears to
visit lis annually in winter, and to be more numerous, or more
easily obtained, during severe or long-continued snow-storms,
when it betakes itself to estuaries or the open sea-coast. We
may presume that it is gregarious, has a rapid direct flight,
and ill these, as well as in other respects, resembles the larger
species. Like them it feeds on the roots of aquatic plants.
Mr. Thompson finds it more common than the Hooper in
Ireland. " In addition to my own observations on the sub-
ject, Mr. R. Ball considers that four-fifths of the Wild Swans
brought to Dublin market are C. Bewickii. A similar pro-
portion, too, occurred in Conuaught, to Mr. G. Jackson,

u V

674 CYGNUS BEWICKII.

gamekeeper, as of about forty or fifty Wild Swans killed there
by him during several winters, all excepting five or six were of
this species. It is the only Swan wliich has been observed on
the coast of Kerry, where it appears in very severe winters."
M. Temminck says it " inhabits Iceland, migrating south-
ward."

675

CYGNUS AMERICANUS. THE AMERICAN SWAN.

Cygnua Aniericanus. American Wild Swan. Dr. Sharpless, Amor. Joum.

Se. and Arts, vol. XXII.
American Swan. Cygnus Amcricanua. Audubon, Amer. Omith. Biogr.

V. 133; Birds of ..\merica, pi. 411,

Adult male about fifty-four inches long, eighty-fice in
extent of wings / bill from the joint to the tip of the upper
mandible three inches and four -twelfths, its greatest tcidth
near the end an inch and a quarter ; from the eye to the tip
of the bill four inches and nine-twelfths ; tarsus four inches;
middle toe four inches and three-fourths, its claio ten-twelfths ;
tail of twenty feathers, moderately rounded; bill and bare
space on the fore ptart of the head black, with an oblong
orange patch, never more than an inch in length, between the
eye and the base of the bill; feet black; ptlumage pure ichite,
the head tinged tcith orange-red. Female similar to the male,
but considerably smaller. Young at first tcith the bill reddish-
white, brown at the end; the feet light grey ; the plumage of
a deep leaden tint. In icinter with the bill fiesh-coloured,
dusky toward the end ; the feet dusky, the plufnage light
bluish-grey ; the upper part of the head dusky grey, the
feathers margining the forehead and cheeks reddish.

The occurence of a single individual of this species, an
immature male, in the south of Scotland, has induced me to
present a somewhat detailed history of it, such as may prove
useful to those who may chance to meet with other speci-
mens. The following descriptions are entirely original, being
taken from an adult male presented to me by Mr. Audubon,
and an entire female preserved in spirits : —

Male in Winter. — The body is of an elliptical, some-

676 CYGNUS AMERICANUS.

wliat depressed form ; the neck extremely long and slender ;
the head of moderate size, oblong, compressed. The bill is
rather longer than the head, straight, higher than broad at
the base, gradually depressed, a little Avider toward the end ;
upper mandible with the dorsal line, not including the con-
cave space beyond the joint, descending and very slightly
convex to beyond the nostrils, then slightly concave, and
ultimately decurved ; the ridge broad and flat at the base,
ffraduallv narrowed, bevond the nostrils convex, the sides
nearly erect and somewhat concave at the base, gradually
sloping, and becoming more convex ; the margins soft, nearly
parallel, but toward the end widening a little ; the unguis
large, broadly obovate, convex, thick-edged, and internally
grooved. The lower mandible with the intercrural space
very long and of moderate width, its membrane bare for
more than two-thirds, the crura convex beneath, with their
lower outline slightly re-arcuate, the laminated margins in-
clinate, the unguis very large, obovato-elliptical, with a wide
groove on each side ; the gape-line slightly re-arcuate.

The upper mandible deeply concave, with a medial pro-
minent papillate ridge, and on each side an oblique series of
transverse flattened tubercles, a submarginal series of incon-
spicuous slender lamell?e, and a marginal scries of about
thirty-five transverse, more or less oblique, slender, little
elevated, obtusely terminated lamellae, not projecting beyond
the margin. The lower mandible has twenty-two external
and about sixty internal lamelhe.

The nostrils are oblong, nearly half an inch in length,
direct, medial, near the ridge, in the lower anterior part of
the oblong sinus. The eyes are very small, their aperture
measuring five-twelfths. That of the ear round, four-twelfths
in diameter. The legs are short, very stout, placed a little
behind tlic centre of the body ; the tibia very muscular, bare
for nearly an inch and a half; the tarsus short, considerably
compressed, reticulated with angular scales, of "which the
anterior are large and rounded ; the hind toe very diminu-
tive, with a slight thickened lower margin; the middle toe
l(in<;<'r than the tarsus ; the outer considerably longer than
tliL' inner, and reticulated to the third joint, the inner reticu-

AMERICAN SWAN. G77

latcd as far as the second joint, the middle toe nearly as far;
the inner with twenty, the middle toe thirty-three, the outer
twenty-five scutclla ; the intordi<;ital wchs full, retirulate,
the mar«;inal web of the inner toe slightly bilobate. The
claws are of moderate size, strong, arched, compressed, con-
vex above, rather acute, that of the luiddle toe with the
inner edge dilated and the tip rounded.

A portion of the forehead, and the space between the bill
and the eyes, denuded. The plumage moderate or rather
full, dense, soft, and I'lastic ; on the head and neck the
feathers oblong, obtuse, blended, and very soft; on the
lower parts rather small, much curved, ovato-oblong ; on
the upper parts larger, broader, and little curved ; the sca-
pulars large. The wings are very long, of moderate breadth,
convex ; the humerus and cubitus pro])ortionally longer than
the digital portion ; the (piills thirty-hve, together with
eight humerals ; the primaries of moderate length, decurved,
the outer three strongly sinuate on the inner web, the second
longest, exceeding the iirst by eight-twelfths of an inch, but
not more than half a twelfth longer than the the third ; the
secondaries of moderate breadth and rounded. The tail is
very short, rounded, of twenty stiffish, rounded feathers, of
which the lateral are an inch and eight-twelfths shorter than
the medial.

The bill is black, as is the bare space on the fore part of
the head, with the exception of an orange-yellow oblong
patch from the anterior angle of the eye, nearly an inch in
length ; the erect sides of the lower mandible and the inside
of the mouth yellowish flesh-colour. The iris brown. The
feet and claws black. The plumage entirely pure white.

Length to end of tail 54 inches ; wing from flexure 22^ ;
tail 7| ; bill along the ridge, including the bare space 4,
from its tip to the eye 4-^^ ; liiud toe ■^, its claw -^ ; second
toe 3-i^, its claw {% ; third toe 4-fV, its claw -^ ; fourth toe
4-f\, its claw J^.

Dimensions of an individual described by Dr. Sharp-
less : — Length 54 ; bill from the edge of the forehead 4^,
from the eye 5 ; extent of wings 86 ; wing from flexure 23 ;
middle toe G.

678 CYGNUS AMERICAXUS.

Female in Winter. — The female is similar to the male,
but considerably smaller. An imlividual dissected by me, as
detailed in ^Ir. Audubon's Avork, had about forty lamellae on
each side of the upper mandible, about sixty inner and twenty-
two outer on each side of the lower. The width of the mouth
one inch live-twelfths. The diameter of the aperture of the
eyes five-twelfths, of that of the ears four-twelfths. The
heart three inches two-twelfths in length, two inches teu-
twelfths in breadth. The oesophagus twenty-six inches long,
only four-twelfths Avide, but at the lower part of the neck
dilating to eight-twelfths ; the proventriculus an inch and
two-twelfths in breadth. The stomach, which is obliquely
situated, is an extremely developed gizzard, of an elliptical
form, two inches and a half in length, three inches and ten-
tAvelfths in breadth ; the right lateral muscle an inch and
three fourths, the other an inch and a third in thickness ; the
epithelium thick, dense, with two smoothish, considerably
concave grinding surfaces. There is a large pyloric sac, from
Avhicli the duodenum comes off. The intestine measures
eleven feet five inches in length. It first curves round the
edge of the stomach to the length of eight inches and a half,
reaching tlie sixth rib, then returns, enclosing the pancreas
to before the stomach, passes along the spine nearly to the
end of the abdomen, returns to the edge of the stomach, forms
a small loop, comes forward, then backward, forward, back-
ward, and forward, becomes anterior, curves parallel to the
duodenum to the seventh rib, passes backward, curving up
to the liver, returns, comes back, then stretches nearly to the
cloaca, where it becomes accompanied by the cocca, comes
forward on the right side to the anterior edge of the stomach,
and bends abni])tly backwards, forming the rcctxmi. There
are thus sixteen bends or eight folds. The average width is
half an inch. The rectum seven inches long, eight-twelfths
in width ; the copca eleven inches long, for three inches only
two-twclftlis wide, then expanded to from three-twelfths to
four-twelfths-and-a-half ; the cloaca of moderate size and
glol)ular.

The trachea, twenty inches in length, has at first a breadth
of uinc-twelfths, gradually contracted to seven- twelfths, and

AMERICAN SWAN. 679

is murli flattened, until about six inches from tlie furcula,
when it gradually becomes cylindrical, and seven-twelfths in
diameter, on reachin*; the curve of the furcula bends a little
ui»\vards, enters a cavity formed in the crest of tlie sternum,
alon<; which it passes to the length of six inches, bends upon
itself horizontally, forming a loop, returns, emerges, bends
upwards and backwards, entering the thorax. The inferior
larynx, composed of several united rings, is laterally com-
pressed. Appended to the last or semilunar ring, on each
side, is a narrow membrane, terminated by an extremely
slender half ring. Witliin this small membrane, and separate
from it, is a large membrane extending to the first bronchial
ring. The bronchi are very short, at first compressed, then
enlarged into a roundish cavity seven-twelfths-and-a-half in
diameter, afterwards cylindrical ; their entire length an inch
and three fourths ; the right bronchus with twenty-three, the
left with twenty-one slender rings, a few of which anastomose.
Length to end of tail 50 inches ; bill along the ridge 4^,
from its tip to the eye 4-|4; lower mandible, along the edge
3^, its height at the basal angles of the mouth 1^, breadth
at the nostrils 1-,^, near the end l-^^.

Variations. — In the adult state, the principal variations
are in size, and in the extent of the orange-red, or rusty tint
on the head and neck. According to Dr. Sharpless, the
trachea in young birds forms a vertical fold within the keel
of the sternum, but in those of more advanced age, in Avhich
a cavity foi-ms in the body of the sternum, makes a horizontal
loop, which varies in size, until in very old birds it has a
Avidth of two inches or more. Of three sterna figured by him
to show these gradations, one, in which the trachea has only
a vertical fold — the bird being very young — the length of the
sternum was six inches and a half, the length to which the
tracheal loop extended thi'ee inches and a half; in another,
the length of the sternum was six inches and a half, that ot
the loop, horizontal at tlic end, four inches and three foinths ;
in the third the sternum was seven inches and a half in
length, the loop circularly expanded at the end, and extend-
ing to the posterior edge of the sternum.

680 CYGXUS AMERICANUS.

Habits. — This species, the common Swan of North
America, long confounded vrith. the common Wikl Swan of
Europe, and afterwards with Bewick's Swan, was first accu-
rately distinguislied and described by Dr. Sharpless, in a
paper read before the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila-
delphia, on the 7th of February 1832, and printed in the
twenty-second volume of the American Journal of Sciences
and Arts. In the first volume of the Cabinet of Natural
History, published, in 1831, in Philadelphia, he has also
given a detailed and most agreeable account of its habits,
respecting which, however, it is not expedient to present
more than the following epitome : —

The Swans leave the sliores of the Polar Sea about the
1st of September, and resort to the lakes and rivers in about
the latitude of Hudson's Bay, where they remain until Octo-
ber, when they collect into fiocks of twenty or thirty, and in
favourable weather commence their southward flight, mount-
ing high in the air, in the form of a prolonged Avedge.
" "When mounted, as they sometimes are, several thousand
feet above the earth, with their diminished and delicate out-
line hardly perceptible against the clear blue of heaven, their
harsh sound softened and modulated by distance, and issuing
from the immense void above, assumes a supernatural charac-
ter of tone and impression that excites, the first time heard, a
strangely peculiar feeling." In flying, they extend their
necks to their full length, advance with an undulating motion
of their outspread wings, and, when favoured by a moderate
■wind, proceed at the rate of an hundred miles an hour. In
October and November they reach their winter homes, gene-
rally arriving in the night, and making the shores ring with
their vociferous congiatulations. The Chesapeake Bay is a
great resort during the winter, flocks of from one to five hun-
dred feeding on the flats near its Avestcrn shores. They
always select places where they can reach their food by the
length of their necks, they being never seen to dive. The
food to wliich they are most partial is the A'alisncria Ameri-
cana, worms, insects, and shell-fish. They are exceedingly
Avatchful, so as to be with difficulty a])proached ; but seldom
fly ofl*, even from tlie pursuit of a boat, unless very closely

AMERICAN SWAN. 681

followed. AVhilo feeding .iiid drcssiiij^, they make much
noise, and through the night their vociferations can be heard
for several miles. " Their notes are extremely varied, some
closely resembling tlie deepest base of the common tin horn,
whilst others run through every modulation of false note of
the French horn or clarionet. They are often killed by rifle-
balls from the shore, as well as l)y sailing down upon them
whilst feeding, or as they pass a point of land between two
feeding coves, and sometimes by means of a boat covered with
ice, and paddled or allowed to drift among them at night."
When wounded in the wing only, a large JSwan will readily
beat off a dog, and is more than a match for a man in four
feet water ; a stroke of the wing having broken an arm, and
the powerful feet almost obliterated the face of a good-sized
duck-shooter.

" This species requires five or six years to reach its
perfect maturity of size and i)lumage, the yearling Cygnet
being about one-third the magnitude of the adult, and
having feathers of a deep leaden colour. The smallest Swan
I have ever examined weighed but eight pounds. Its plu-
mage was very deeply tinted, and it had a bill of a very
beautiful flesh-colour, and very soft. By the third year the
colour of the bill becomes black, and the colour of the
plumage less intense, except on the top of the liead and back
of the neck, which are the last parts forsaken by the colour.
Swans of the sixth year have assumed all the characters of
the adult. Wlien less than six years of age, these birds are
very tender and delicious eating, having the colour and
flavour of the Goose ; the latter quality, however, being
more concentrated and luscious."

In the paper published in the American Journal of
Science and Arts, he states that the youngest and smallest
specimen he had met with " had a very soft reddish-white
bill, with a brown point, and measured three inches from the
point of the beak to the forehead, six inches and one-eighth
to the occiput, and the usual position of the coloured spot
was covered to one inch and three-eighths in front of the
eye, Avith small orange feathers, which extend down to the
gape. The plumage, to the end of the tail and primaries.

682 CYGNUS AMERICANUS.

was of a deep leaden tint, and the feet and legs were of a
light grey colour. This specimen measured six feet and
eight inches between the points of the extended wings, four
feet two inches from the point of the beak to the tail, and
Aveighed eleven pounds," the greatest weight of an adult
being about twenty-one pounds.

This species has not hitherto been known to ^dsit any
part of Europe, although the occurrence there of a bird
capable of flying a hundred miles an hour Avould not be
sui-prising.

In February, 1841, having been informed that there was
in a poulterer's in Edinburgh a Swan, somewhat remarkable
on account of the dark colour of its head and small size, I
went to see it ; but not being at the time engaged Avith
birds of this family, did not purchase it. However, a gentle-
man having bought it on my account, I found that it pre-
sented some of the characters of Bewick's Swan, but Avas
considerably larger than even adults of that species. It was
a young bird in pale grey plumage, Avith the upper part of
the head dusky, the bill partially flesh-coloured, the feet
black, and the tail-feathers eighteen. This latter circum-
stance induced me to incline to the opinion of its being
Cygnus BcAvickii ; and on dissecting it I found the vertical
bend of the trachea, and the form and position of the inferior
larynx and bronchi, to agree with that species ; but the
stern\im was larger, the stomach vastly superior in size, and
the intestine longer and Avider. I then compared it Avith a
stuffed adult specimen of the American SAvan, and a pre-
pared head and bill of a young bird of the same species,
together Avith my notes and draAvings of dissections of Cygnus
musicus, BeAvickii, and Americanus, and became satisfied of
its belonging to the latter species. Its description is as
follows : —

The body is of an ovato-clliptical form, rather depressed,
especially at its fore part ; the neck extremely long and mode-
rately thick ; the licad of moderate size, oblong, and com-
pressed. The bill is slightly longer than the head, straight,
liigher tlian broad at the base, gradually depressed, of almost
e(^ual breadth throughout, being hoAvever a tAvelfth of an inch

AMERICAN SWAN. G83

Avider toward the end, -whith is rounded. The upper man-
dible has the dorsal line sloping, the ridge at first flat and
broad, but gradually narrowed to beyond the nostrils, tlu-n
convex, the sides nearly erect at the base, gradually sloped
and more convex, the unguis broadly obovate, large, and con-
vex, with the edge strong and internally striated, the edges
soft, marginate, and scrobiculate. The lower mandible with
the intererural space very long and of moderate width, its
membrane bare for two-thirds, the crura convex beneatli,
their lower outline slightly reareuate, the laminated margins
inclinate, the unguis very large, obovato-elliptical, with a
broad groove at each side ; the gape-line slightly reareuate.

The upper mandible is deeply concave, with a medial
papillate ridge, and on each side an oblique series of trans-
verse flattened tubercles, a sub-marginal series of inconspicu-
ous, slender lamella;, and thirty-five oblique and transverse
slender, elevated, obtusely terminated lamina?, of which the
slightly elevated free tips do not project beyond the mannn.
On each side of the lower mandible are about twenty-two
external and sixty-five internal lamella?. The oesophao-us,
tliirty-three inches and a half in length, averages ten-twelfths
in width, but toward the lower part of the neck is enlarged to
one inch, and in the proven tricular part measures an inch
and a half in breadth. The stomach, which is placed very
obliquely on the left side, measures three inches in len<Ttli,
four inches and eight-twelfths in breadth, being of a trans-
verse elliptical form, a little compressed, with the lateral
muscles extremely developed, the tendinous fibres covering-
nearly the whole surface, the tendons very narrow in the
middle; the inferior muscle distinct and small. The intestine
eleven feet ten inches in length, varies in width from an inch
and a quarter in the first part of the duodenum to eif^ht-
twelfths of an inch. The duodenum curves round the edo-e of
the stomach in three- fourths of a circle, retmns at the distance
of nine inches, receives the biliary ducts at nineteen inches
from the pylorus, then passes along the right side, near the end
of the abdomen, ascends, forms several curves beneath the
kidneys, and then forms several nearly transverse parallel
folds, extending from the duodenal fold to the anus, after

684 CYGXUS AMERICANUS.

■which it curves to above the stomach, and proceeds nearly-
straight to the end, forming in all sixteen curves. The rec-
tum is ten inches in length, eleven-tAvclfths in breadth, and
at the end is expanded into a cloacal dilatation, an inch and a
half in width. The coeca are fifteen inches long, for four
inches and a half only three-twelfths in breadth, then enlarg-
ing to one inch, and toward the end contracting to four-
twelfths. The right lobe of the liver is five inches in length,
the left three inches, the gall-bladder elliptical, an inch and
a half. The spleen is only ten-twelfths in its greatest dia-
meter. The heart two inches and ten-twelfths in length, an
inch and ten-twelfths in breadth.

The trachea, formed of about two hundred and eighty
flattened rings, is at first nine-twelfths in breadth, then con-
tracts to six-twelfths, and becoming round enlarges to seven-
twelfths, and entering the cavity in the crest ef the sternum
to the distance of three inches, forms a vertical loop, returns,
curves in the furcula, and enters the thorax to the distance of
two inches. The syrinx is formed of five united rings, and is
compressed, being half an inch in breadth, and an inch in
depth. Appended to the last half ring on each side is a nar-
row membrane terminating in a very slender half ring, and
external to the large membrane between the last tracheal and
first bronchial half ring. The bronchi are very short, an inch
and a half in length, at first compressed, half an inch in
height, then round, and half an inch in diameter, finally
cvlindrical and narrower. The rings are slender, incomplete,
a few anchylosed ; the right bronchus with twenty, the left
twenty-four.

The nostrils are linear-oblong, nearly half an inch in
length, situated beyond the middle, in the fore part of the
oblong nasal space. The eyes are small, their aperture only
four-twelfths and a half. That of the ear roinid, four-twelfths
in diameter. The legs are short, very stout ; the tibia very
muscular, bare for an inch and a qiuirter ; the tarsus short,
considerably compressed, reticulated with angular scales, of
Avhich the anterior are larger and rounded ; the hind toe very
diminutive, with a slight thickened lower margin, the middle
toe longer than the tarsus ; the outer considerably longer than

AMERICAN SWAN. 685

the inner ; tlie iiiiK-r with twenty, the niiddh- toe with thirtv-
thrcc, the outer with twenty-seven seutelhi ; the interdi^ital
Avehs lull, reticulate, the niar<;;inal weh of the inner toe sli<^htly
bilohate. The claws are small, stron;;, arched, conijjressed,
convex above, obtuse, that of the middle toe much larffer,
with the inner edj^e dilated, an<l the tip rounded.

The parts at the base of the bill, which ultimately become
bare, tliat is, the space between the frontal an;;les above, and
those between the lateral sinuses and the eye, are sparsely
covered with very small, somewhat downy feathers. The
l)lunia!4;(! is moderate, soft, dense, and elastic. On the head
and neck the feathers are ol)long, obtuse, blended, and very
soft; on the lower ])arts ovato-oblong, much curved ; on the
n])per lar;^'er, broader, and little curved. The winL,^s \<ni<^, of
moderate breadth ; the ([uills thirty-five, besides ei^dit hume-
rals ; the primaries rather short, decurvcd, the outer three
stronj^ly sinuate on the inner wel), the second and third ecpial
and longest, the first nine-twelfths of an inch shorter. TIkj
tail is very short, rounded, of eighteen rounded feathers, of
which the lateral are about an inch shurti-r than the medial.

The bill is reddish Hesli-colour, gradually shaded into
dusky, and at the end blackish. Part of the partially bare
space between the base of the bill and the eye of a dull lemon-
yellow. The intercrural space is flesh-coloured, as is the
interior of the mouth. The iris dusky-brown. The feet are
black, but on the tibia anteriorly is a small flesh-coloured
patch; the claws purplish-grey, paler at the base. The
general colour of the plvunage is a very pale ash-grey, seeming
a soiled white at a distance ; the breast and abdomen greyish-
white. The head and neck are dusky-grey, that colour being
deeper on the upper part of the head, gradually fading on
the neck, paler on the throat and lower eyelids. "When
closely examined, each feather on the head, and part of the
neck, is found to be marginally ti{)ped with jialcr. Some of
the minute feathers on the fore part of the head are yellow-
ish. The larger wing-coverts, quills, scapulars, and tail-
feathers are nearly pure white at the base, with a dusky-
tinge at the end.

Length to end of tail 4G] inches; extent of wings 80;

686 CYGNUS AMERICANUS.

Aviug from flexure 20|^ ; tail 51 ; bill along the ridge 3^,
from the joint 3^, from the eye 4-j^, its height at the base
l-pr, its breadth near the end 1;^, about the middle l-j^; bare
part of tibia l-fj ; tarsus 4 ; hind toe -^y its claw -(^ ; second
toe 3yV, its claw -j^ ; third toe 4-j^, its claw -j^ ; fourth toe
4-j^, its claw 4.

Remarks. — The tail, although apparently complete, hav-
ing only eighteen feathers, induced me at first to consider
this bird as a Bewick's Swan ; but its length and extent of
wing, it being ob^aously a young bird, being considerably
gi'cater than those of an adult male of that species — the
former being 461^ to 45, the latter 80 to 73, and young Swans
being in their first winter a third less than adults — I con-
ceived it might prove merely the young of Cygnus musicus.
On dissecting it, however, I found reason to alter my opinion.
There are three Swans — Cygnus Buccinator, Americanus,
and Bewickii — of which the trachea, after forming a fold
within the sternimi, enters the thorax to a considerable dis-
tance, and terminates in very short bulging bronchi. Now,
as will be seen from the description of the trachea given
above, this was the case with the bird in hand. The syrinx
of Cygnus musicus scarcely enters the thorax, being situated
on the anterior edge of the sternum, while the bronchi are so
much elongated as to reach their usual place of insertion in
the other species. Cygnus Buccinator is so very much larger
that it could not belong to that species, and Cygnus Bewickii
so much smaller that its belonging to it seemed scarcely
l)robable. Its tongue half an inch longer, its gizzard an inch
broader, the intestine much longer and wider, and the tra-
chea, instead of being almost uniform, considerably dilated
below, seemed all in favour of its belonging to Cygnus
Americanus. On comparing its sternum with that of an
adult Cygnus Bewickii, I found it nearly an inch longer, and
of considerably gicater breadth, while it agi*eed in all respects
with that of an adult female Cygnus Americanus, excepting
that it formed no horizontal loop, this circumstance depend-
ing merely on age. A stuffed head of a young Cygnus
Americanus in my collection was found to be precisely similar

AMERICAN SWAN. 687

in every respect, with the exception of its having mort- buffy
or rufous f»;ith»>rs ; and the bills of the two showed not the
sli<^htej>t difference in form, nieusurenients, or luniellaj. In
fact, so perfect an aj^eenient could not take place in two
diHcrciit species. Tlie wind's also a;^reed as to the nunj])rr
and form of the (juills — which, however, were smaller — with
those of an adult Cy^nus Americanus, and the tail was pre-
cisely similar to that of a younj; bird in my collection, only
that the one had eiy;htecn the other twenty feathers. The
tarsi and toes were exactly similar ; the scutella the same in
number and form ; but the claws of my younj^ bird were
shorter and jjuler than those of the adult. As to the tail-
feathers, M. Temminck, Mr. IJlythe, and others, have found
them to vary as to number in Swans <;cnerally, and Mr.
Thompson and others have shown that even of C'v<pius
lU'wickii, the normal numl)er is not ei<;hteen l)ut twenty.
If it, then, should frequently have eighteen, there is no
reason to suppose that Cygnus Americanus may not also
sometimes have two less than usual.

On the Avhole, then, the result of my examination is,
that the individual in question is shewn by the structure
and curve of its trachea to be similar to Cygnus Americanus
and Cygnus Bcwickii ; that, although a young bird, it
greatly exceeds the adult of the latter species in all its
dimensions, and especially in those of its digestive and respi-
ratory organs ; and that it agrees in all essential respects
with the former species, its identity being especially estab-
lished by the perfect agreement of the bill and head with
those of a young bird of that species ; finally, that if not
Cygnus Americanus, it is a species not hitherto described,
dittering from it only in having eighteen instead of twenty
tail-feathers. But as the variation of the tail-feathers in
Swans is notorious, this circumstance appears to be of no
importance whatever.

The proventriculus of this individual contained some
fleshy roots and rhizomata, with quartz sand. In the ante-
rior half of the intestine was a great number, forty or fiftv,
slender tape-worms. Probably the examination of these
animals might be of importance, as each species of Swan

688 CYGNUS AMERICANUS.

may be infested with a particular species of tape-worm. The
flesh of this bird, judg^ing from a portion of the muscles of
the leg roasted on the tongs in the dissecting-room, is
tender, and of exquisite flavour ; but to give it justice, one
would require to have it better cooked, and eaten under
more favomable circumstances. It is certainly far superior
to the best beef.

The number of ribs in this individual is eleven, which
also is the number in an American specimen dissected by
me ; whereas in Bewick's Swan, as well as in Cygnus
musicus, I find the number to be ten.

IM.ATK TCXIII

niiinsTjm I'lifAXs <iy tkxt.itiiiii

^t?

I'UATJ? XXV

i>li:i:.<!Ti\-t: oni:^.va .if ofEAT ^^■u|■r^: t-..HKT

I'l.ATK X>.M

/•Vy Z r^jiJt

IM.AII. XXIV
ulOM.iTli'h iiiK-.iSK r>F rKxr.ii-DiiK.'

(h.fh rC.il.h,

EXTLAXATTON OF THE PLATES.

Plate I. Digcstivu Organs of Probers. The same letters
refer to the same parts in all.

Fig. 1. Digestive Orgam of the Lap-
tving, Vaiiellus crisiatus.

a, b, c, the CDSophagus.

b, c, proventriculus.
d, stomach.

d, e, f, duodenum.
g, rest of intestine.

h, ca3ca.

*', j, cloacal dilatation of the rectum.

Fig. 2. Digestive Orgam of the Dunlin,
Tringa Cinclm.

Fig. 3. Digestive Organs of the Gray
Phalarope, Phalaropus lobatus.

Plate II. Digestive Organs of Probers.

Fig. 1. Digestive Organs of the Oyster-cateher, Hcemat&pus Ostralegus.
Fig. 2. Digestive Organs of the Curlew-billed Sandpiper, Tringa subarqunta.
Fig. 3. Digestive Organs of the Red-shank, Totanus Calidris.

Plate III. Digestive Organs of Stalkers.

Fig. L Digestive Orgatis of the Black-billed Egret, Egretta nigrirostris.

The great width of the oesophagus, the roundish thin stomach, its pyloric
lobe, the very slender elongated intestine, destitute of coccal appendages,and the
large globose cloaca, arc characteristic of this order.

Plate IV. Digestive Organs of Skulkers.

Fig. \. Digestive Organs of the Corn-Crake, Crex pratensis.
Fig. 2. Digestive Organs of Bald Coot, Fulica atra.

The powerful gizzard and large cocca agree with those organs in the
Rasores, hut the oesophagus differs in having no crop or dilatation.

VOL. IV. XX

INDEX TO rUK SPECIES DESCRIBED.

The Approved Names only are employed, the Synonymes and Provincitil Namei
being excluded.

Actitis Hypoleucos,

macularia, .

American Bittern,

Swan,

Anser albifrons,

brachyrhynchus,

Canadensis,

ferus,

segetum,

Ardca cinerea,

purpurea,

Ash-coloured Sandpiper,
Avocet, black-and-white,

Baillon's Crake,
Bald Coot,
Bar-tailed Godwit, .
Bemicla Brenta,

leucopsis, .

ruficollis,

Bemicle-Goose, Black- faced,

Red-necked,

White-faced,

Bewick's Swan,

Bittern, American, .

European,

Little,

Squacco,

Black-and-white Avocet,
Black-faced Bemicle- Goose,
Black-billed Egret, .
Black- breasted Sandpiper,
Black Stork.

Black tailed Godwit,
Black-winged Stilt-shank,

Page 351 Botaurus comatus,

356 lentiginosus,

417 minutus,

675 stellaris, .

609 Bufi'-backcd Egret,

602 Bustard, Great,

614 Little,

589

595 Calidris arenaria, .

440 Canada Goose,

453 Changeless Swan,

185 Charadrius Cantianus,

306 Hiaticula,

minor,

539 Chenalopex ^gyptiacus,

560 Ciconia alba, .

260 nigra.

629 Collared Pratincole,

622 Turnstone,

634 Common Redskank Tattler,

629 Ring- Plover,

634 Rutf,

622 Sanderling,

669 Snipe,

417 "Woodcock,

410 Coot, Bald,

423 Com Crake,

428 Courser, Cream-coloured,

306 Crake, Com,

629 Baillon's,

460 Little,

203 Spotted,

485 Crane, Grey,

269 Crested Lapwing,

312 Crex Baillonii,

Page 428
417
423
410
474
30
35

237
614
654
125
116
129
639
481
485

49
143
333
116
171
237
368
386
560
527

42
627
539
541
535

20
133
539

692

INDEX TO SPECIES.

Crex pratensis, . Page 527

pusilla, . .541

li'orzana, .

Cuilcw-billed Sandpiper,
Cuiiew, (jreat,

Wimbrel,. .

Cursorius Europiuus,
Cyguus Americanus,

Bewickii,

imiuutabilis,

musicus,

Dotterell Plover,

Dunlin,

Dusky llcdshank Tatler,

Egret, Black-billed,

Buti-backed,

Little White,

Yellow-biUod White,

Egretta alba,

Uaizotta,

nigrirostris,

russata,

Egyptian Eox-Goose,
Eui-opeun Bittern,

Flat- billed Sandpiper,
Eox-Cioose, Egj'ptian,
Eulica atra,

Galliuula Chloropus,
GaUiniile, Greeu-looted, .
Gambo Spui'-winged Goose,
Glareola I'ratincola,
Glossy Ibis,
Glottis Chloropus,
Godw'it, Bur-t;iiled,

Black-tailed,

Golden I'lover,
Goose, Canada,

Gambo Spur-winged,

NaiTow-billed Grey,

Short-billed Grey,

Thick-billed Grey,

White-fronted,

Great Bustard,

Curlew,

^— Snipe, .
Green-looted Gallinule,

Water-Ilen,

Grcen-lcgged Longshank,
Greenshank, .

Green Tatler,
Grey Crane,

Goose, Narrow-bUled,

Goose, Short-billed,

Goose, 'ITuck-billed,

Ueron, •

535
215
243
253
42
6
669
654
659

104
203

328

460
474
471
465
465
471
460
474
639
410

224
639
560

547
547
644
49
493
319
260
269
94
614
644
595
602
589
609

30
243
364
547
547
319
319
342

20
595
602
589
440

Grey Long-beak, .

Night-Heron,

Phalarope,

Plover, .

— — Snipe,

Hajmatopus Ostralegus,
Heron, Grey, .

Grey Night,

• Purple,

Himantopus melanoptcrus,

Ibis Falcinelliis,
Glossy, .

Page 275

433

284

275

Jack Snipe ,

Kentish Ring-Plover,
Knot,

Lap\^TLng, Crested, .
Limosa Jigocephala,

rula,

Little Bittern, .

Bustard,

Crake, .

Eing-Plover, .

Sandpiper,

— — TNTiite Egret,
Lobefoot, Kcd-necked,
Lobipes hyperboreus,
Long-beak, Grey,

Machetes pugnax, .
Macrorhamphus grisciis.

Narrow-billed Grey Goose,
Night Heron, Grey,
Numenius Ai'quata,

Phacopus,

Nycticorax Gardcni,

Gidicncnius crepitans,
Otis Tarda,

Tetrax,

Oyster-catcher, Pied,

I'cctoral Sandpiper,
Pied Oyster-catcher,
Phalarope, Grey,
I'halaropus lobatus,
Platalca Leucorodia,
Plectropterus Gambensis.
Plover, Dotterel,

Golden,

Grey,

Pluvial is aurea,

Morinellus,

Squatarola,

INDEX TO SPECIES.

693

Pratincole, Collared,
Purple Heron,.
Sandpiper, .

Uiiil, Water,
Rallus aquiitieus,
Itecurvirostra Avocetta,
Kod-necked Hernicle- Goose,
Ked-neoked Lobe- foot,
liing-Plover, Common, .

Kentish,

Little,

Ruff, Common,
Rusticola sylvcstris,

Sabine's Snipe,
Sanderling, Common,
Sandpiper, AsU-eoloured,

Black-breasted,

Curlew-billed,

Flat-billed, .

Little, .

Pectoral,

Purple, .

Scliinz's,

Tcmminck's,

Scolopax Gallinula,

Gallinago,

major,

Sabini,

Short-bilU'd Grey Goose,
Snipe, Common,
Great,

Jack,

Sabine's,

Spoonbill, "WTiite, .
Spotted Crake,

Weet-wcct,

Squacco Bittern,
Stilt-shank, Black-winged,
Stone Thick-knee,
Stork, Black,

"WTiite, .

Strepsilas Interpres,
Swan, American,

453

197

o21
521
306
634
291
IIG
1'_'5
129
171
386

377
237
186
203
215
224
227
190
197
222
232
380
368
364
377
602
368
364
380
377
503
535
356
428
312
77
485
481
143
675

Swan, Bcwick'.s, I'dtfi: 669

Changeless, 654

Whooping. 659

Tatler, Common Redshank, 333

Dusky Redshank, 328

Green, . 342

Wood, . 346

Tcmminck's Sandpiper, 232
Tliick-billed Grey Goose, 589
Thick-knee, Stone, . 77
Totanus Calidris, 333
fuscus, . , 328

Glareola, 346

ochropus, . .342

Tringa Canutu-s, . 185

Cinclu.s, . 203

maritima, . 197

minuta, 227

pectoralis, . 190

platyrhyncha, . 224

Scbinzii, . 222

subarquata, . . 215

Temminckii, . 232

Turnstone, Collared, . 143

Vancllus cristatus, . .133

Water-Hen, Green-footed, . 547

Water Rail, . . 521

Weet-weet, Spotted, . 356

"WTiitc-breasted, 351

Whimbrel, Curlew, . 253

White-breasted Wcct-weet, 351

WTiite Egret, Little, . 471

Yellow-billed, 465

White-faced Bcrnicle-Gooso, . 622

White-fronted Goose, . 609

White Spoonbill, . . 603

White Stork, . . 481

Whooping Swan, . . 659

Woodcock, Common, . 386

Wood Tatler, . . 346

Yellow-billed White Egret, . 465

GENERAL INDEX.

AcTiTis, 350.

llypoleucos, .'J51.

macularia, 3o6.

American Bittern, 117.

Swan, 675.

Anscr, 585.

albifrons, 609.

brachyrhynchus, 602.

Canadensis, G14.

segetum, 595.

ferns, 589.

Anserina), 579.
Ardea, 438.

cinerea, 440.

purpurea, 453.

Ardeinte, 399.

Ash-coloured Sandpiper, 185.
Aucupatorcs, 10, 397.
Austrian Pratincole, 49.
Avocet, Black-and- White, 306.

Bald Coot, 560.

Duck, 560.

Goose, 609.

Baillon's Crake, 639.
Barnacle, 622, 629.

Black-headed, 629.

Ring-necked, 629.

White-cheeked, 622.

Land, G22.

Bar-tailed Godwit, 260.
Bean Goose, 595.

Beniicla, 619.

Brenta, 629.

leucopsis, 622.

ruficollis 634.

Bcmicle Goose, 619.

Black-faced, 629.

Red-breasted, 634.

■ Red-necked, 634.

Wliite-faced, 622.

Bewick's Swan, 669.
Bilcock, 521.

Bittern, 408.

American, 417.

Common, 410.

European, 418.

Little, 423.

Squacco, 428.

Black-and-^Miite Avocet. 306.
Black-billed Egret, 460.
Black-breasted Sandpiper, 203.
Black-faced Bemicle-Goose, 629.
Black-headed Baniicle, 629.
Black Stork, 485.
Black-tailed Godwit, 269.
Black-winged Stiltshank, 312.
Bleater, 368.
Blutter, 368.
Bog-bumper, 410.
Boonk, 423.
Botaunis, 408.

comatus, 428.

lentiginosus, 417.

• minutus, 423.

stellaris, 410.

Bothag, 116.
Brand Goose, 629.
Brent Goose, 629.
Brown Phalarope, 291.

Snipe, 275.

Buff- backed Egret, 474.
Buff-breasted Sandpiper, 194.
Bull-head, 86.
Bumble, 410.
Bumpy-coss, 410.
Bustard, 28.

Great, 30.

Little, 35.

Thick-kneed, 77.

Bustards and allied species, 25.
Butter-bump, 410.

Calildris, 235, 237.

arenaria, 237.

Cambridge Godwit, 328.

696

GENERAL INDEX.

Canada Goose, 614
Changeless Swan, 654.
Charadrius, 114.

Cantianus, 125.

Hiaticula, 116.

minor, 129.

Chenalopcx, 637.

— ^gyptiacus, 639.

Cholldrick, 152.
Ciconia, 479.

alba, 481

nigra, 485.

Cobler's-awl, 306.
Collared Pratincole, 49.

Turnstone, 143.

Common Bittern, 410.

Crane, 20.

Heron, 440.

Eedshank Tatler, 333.

lling-Plover, 116.

Ruif, 171.

— Sanderling, 237.

Sandpiper, 351.

Snipe, 368.

Thick-Knee, 77.

"Woodcock, 386.

Claik-Goose, 622.
Claikis, 622.
Coot, 557.

Bald, 560.

foot, 284.

Common, 560.

Cora-ghriach, 440.

Corn Crake, 527.

Courser, 40.

— ■ — — Cream-coloured, 42.

Crake, 525.

Baillon's, 539.

Com, 527.

Little, 541.

Spotted, 535.

Crane, 17.

Cranes, and allied species, 15.

Common, 20.

Grey, 20.

Cravat Goose, 614.
Cream-coloured Courser, 42.

Plover, 42.

Crested Heron, 440.

Lapwing, 133.

Crcx, 525.

Baillonii, 539.

pratcnsis, 527.

pusilla, 541.

Porzana, 535.

Cribratores, 571.
Cro.jke(l-biU, 306.
f^urkw, 211.
billed Samlpipcr, 215.

Curlew, Great, 243.

Jack, 253.

Little, 253.

Stone, 77.

"WTiimbrel, 253.

Curochdag, 133.
Cursores, 9, 12.
Cursorius, 40.
Cursorius Europaeus, 42.
Curwillet, 237.
Cute, 560.
Cygninte, 646.
Cygnus, 649.

Americanus,

Bewickii, 669.

immutabilis, 654.

musicus, 659.

Daker Hen, 527.

Divers, 569.

Dotterel, Little Ringed, 129.

■ Plover, 104.

Ring, 116.

Double Snipe, 364.

Dunlin, 203.

Duhvilly, 116.

Dusky Redshank Tatler, 328.

Dusky Sandpiper, 328.

Dusky Snipe, 328.

Dreaun, 527.

Egret, 458.

Black-billed, 450.

Buff-backed, 474.

Little Wliitc, 471.

Yellow-biUed "White, 465.

Egretta, 458.

alba, 465.

Garzetta, 471.

nigrirosti'is, 460.

russata, 474.

Egyptian Fox-Goose, 639.
Egytian Goose, 639.
Elk, 659.
European Bittern, 410.

Feadag, 94.
Fen-Goose, 589.
Fiddler, 351.

Flat-billed Sandpiper, 224.
Fo.x-Goose, 637.

Egyptian, 637.

Freckled Heron, 417.
Fulica, 557.
Atra, 560.

Gallinula, 544.
(iallinule, 544.
Gallinula Chloropus, 547.

GENERAL INDEX

6'J7

Gambo Spur-wingod Goose, 641.
Gallinule, Grecn-footcd, 547.
Gccso and allied species, 579.
Glareola, 46.

Pratincola, 49.

Glossy Ibis, 493.
Glottis, 316.

Chloropus, 319.

Godwit, 258, 260.

liar-tailed, 260.

Black-tailed, 269.

Cambridge, 328.

Red-legged, 328.

Golden Plover, 94.
Goose, 585.

Bald, 609.

Bean, 595.

Brand, 629,

Brent, 629.

Canada, 614.

Cravat, 614.

Fen, 589.

Gambo Spur-winged, 644.

Grey, 589.

Laughing, 609.

Marsh, 589.

Narrow-billed Grey, 595.

Pink-footed, 602.

Small Grey, 595.

Short-billed Grey, 602.

Thick-billed Grey, 589.

White-fi-onted, 609.

Wild, 589, 595, 602.

Great Bustard, 30.

Curlew, 243.

Great Plover, 77.

Snipe, 364.

— AMiite Heron, 465.

Greater Plover, 319.
Green-footed Gallinule, 547.

— ^ Water-Hen, 547.

Green-legged Horseman, 319.

Longshank, 319.

Green Plover, 133.

Sandpiper, 342.

Greenshank, 319.

Snipe, 319.

Green Tatlcr, 342.
Grey Crane, 20.

Goose/ 589.

Goose, Narrow-billed, 595.

Goose, Thick-billed, 589.

Goose, Short-billed, 602.

Heron, 440.

Lag, 589.

Long-beak, 275.

Night Heron, 433.

Phalarope, 284.

Plover, 86.

VOL. IV.

Grey Sandpiper, 86, 185.

Snipe, 275.

Gruina>, 15.

Grus, 17.

Grua cinerea, 80.

IlEcmatopus, 149.

Ostralegus, 152.

Half-Curlew, 253.
Ileather-bliter, 368.
Heron, 433.

Common, 440.

Freckled, 417.

Grey, 440.

Grey Night, 433.

Night, 433.

Purple, 453.

Herons and allied species, 399.
Heronshaw, 440.
Himantopus, 310.

melanopterus, 312.

Hooper, 659.

Horseman, Green-legged, 319.

Hyperborean Phalarope, 291.

lan-ghurag, 368.
Ibis, 490.

Falcinellus, 493.

Glossy, 493.

Jacanas and allied species, 611.
Jack Snipe, 380.
Jud, 380.
Judeock, 380.

Kentish Plover, 125.

Ring-Plover, 125.

Knot, 185.

Lag, Grey, 589.
Land Barnacle, 622.

Hen, 527.

Rail, 527.

Lapwing, 131.

Crested, 133.

Lark, Sand, 116, 237.
Latitores, 10, 508.
Laughing Goose. 609.
Laverock, Sandy, 116.
Limosa, 258.

iEgocephala, 269.

rufa, 260.

Little Bittern, 423.

Bustard, 35.

Crake, 541.

Curlew, 253.

Ringed Dotterel, 129.

Ringed Plover, 129.

Sandpiper, 227.

V V

689

GENERAL INDEX.

Little White Egret, 471.
Lobe-foot, 289.

Red-necked, 291.

Lobipes, 289.

hyperboreus, 291.

Long-beak, 274.

Grey, 275.

Long-legged Plover, 312.
Longlcgs, 312.
Longneck, 423.
Longshank, 312, 316.

Machetes, 169, 171.

pugnax, 171.

Macrorhamphus, 274, 275.

griseus, 275.

Marsh Goose, 589.

Hen, 547.

Mayfowl, 253.
Mersatores, 569.
Mircdrum, 410.
Mire Snipe, 368.
Moor Hen, 547.

Naosg, 368.

Xarrovr-billed Grey Goose, 595.

Night Heron, 431, 433.

Grey, 433.

Raven, 433.

Norfolk Plover, 77.
Numenius, 241.

Arquata, 243.

PhjBopus, 253.

Nycticorax, 431.
Gardeni, 433.

(Edicnemus, 75.

crepitans, 77.

Otinac, 25.
Otis, 26, 28.

Tarda, 30.

Tetrax, 35.

Ox-birds, 237.
Oyster-catcher, 149.
Pied, 152.

Parrinse, 511.
Pectoral Sandpiper, 190.
Peeseweep, 133.
Pcvrit, 133.
Phalarope, Brown, 291.

Grey, 284..

Hyperborean, 29 1 .

Red, 284, 291.

Phalaropes and allied species, 28 1 .

Phalaropinac, 281.

Phalaroims lobatus, 284.

Pianet, 152.

Pied Oyster-Catchor, 152.

Pie, Sea, 152.
Piet, Sea, 152.
Pink-footed Goose, 602.
Platalea, 500.

Leucorodia, 503.

Plectropterus, 643.

■ Gambensis, 644.

Polish Swan, 654.
Pool Snipe, 333.
Poor WilUe, 260'
Plover, 83.

Cream-coloured, 42.

Dotterel, 104.

Golden, 94.

Great, 77.

Greater, 319.

Green, 133.

— Grav, 86.

Kentish, 125.

Long-legged, 312.

Norfolk, 77.

Ring, 116.

Stone, 77, 116, 260.

——— Whistling:, 94.

Yellow, 94.

Plovers and allied species, 66.
Plungers, 569.
Pluvialinae, 66.
Pluvialis, 83.

aurea, 94.

Morinellus, 104.

Squatarola, 86.

Pratincole, 46.

Austrian, 49.

_ CoUarcd, 49.

Probers, 9, 54.
Purple Heron, 453.
Purple Sandpiper, 197.

Queet, 560.

Rail, 518.

Spotted, 535.

Water, 521.

Rallus, 518.

aquaticus, 521.

Raven, Night, 433.
Recurvirostra, 304.

Avocetta, 306.

Red-breasted Bcmicle, 634.

— — Sandpiper, 185.

Snipe, 275.

Red-legged Godwit, 328.

Snipe, 333.

Red-necked Berniclc Goose, 634.
Red Phalarope, 284, 291.

Sandpiper, 185.

Redshank, 303.
Duskv, 328.

GENERAL INDEX.

69i>

Redshank, Spotted, 328.

Reeve, 171.

Remarks on the Swimming Birds, 567.

Ring Dotterel, 116.

Ringed Plover, Little. 129.

Ring-necked Berniclc, 629.

Ring-Plover, 114, 116.

Common, 116.

Little, 129.

Kentish, 125.

Ruff, 169, 171.

Common, 171.

Runner, .521.
Runners, y, 12.
Rusticola, 384.
sylvcstris, 386.

Sabines' Snipe, 377.
Sandcock, 333.
Sandcrling, 23o, 237.

Common, 237.

Sand Lark, 116, 237.
Sandpiper, 183.

Ash-coloured, 18 J.

Black-breasted, 283.

Butf-breastcd, 194.

Common, 351.

Curlew-billed, 215.

Flat-billed, 224.

Green, 342.

Grey, 86, 185.

Little, 227.

Pectoral, 190.

Purple, 197.

Red, 185.

Rcd-breastcd, 185.

— Schinz's, 222.

Temminck's, 232.

Sandpipers and allied species, 161.
Sandy Laverock, 116.

Loo, 116.

Schinz's Sandpiper, 222.
Scolopacina;, 359.
Scolopai, 363.

Gallinago, 368.

Gallinula, 380.

major, 364.

Sabini, 377.

Scooper, 306.

Scooping, Avocet, 306.

Sea I'ie, 152.

— Piet, 152.

Short-billed Grey Goose, 602.

Sifters, 571.

Skidding Cock, 521.

Skilting, 535.

Skit, 521.

Skulkers, 508.

Small Grey Gooose, 595.

Snipe, Brown, 275.

Common, 368.

Double, 364.

Dusky, 328.

Great, 364.

Grecnshank, 319.

Grey, 275.

Jack, 380.

Mire, 368.

Moor, 368.

Red-breasted, 275.

Red-legged, 339.

Sabine's, 377.

Solitary, 364,

Spotted, 328.

Woodcock, 364.

Snipes and allied species, 359.
Solitary Snipe, 364.
Spoonbill, 500.
Spoonbill, White, 503.
Spotted Crake, 535.

Rail, 535.

Redshank, 328.

Sandpiper, 356.

Snipe, 328.

'■ — Water-Rail, 535.

Weet-weet, 356.

Spur-winged Goose, 643.
Squacco Bittern, 428.
Stalkers, 10, 397.
Stank-Hen, 547.
StUt, 312.
Stilt-Shank, 310.

Black- winged, 312.

Stock Whaap, 243.
Stone Curlew, 77.

- Hatch, 116.

Plover, 116, 260, 77.

Thick-knee, 77.

Strepsilas, 141.

Interpres, 143.

Stork, 479.

Black, 485.

- White, 481.
Swan, 649.

American, 675.

Bewick's, 669.

Changeless, 654.

Polish, 654.

Whistling, 659.

^Tiooping. 659.

Wild, 659.

Swans and allied species, 646.

Tang Whaap. 253.

Tantalinoe, 488.

Tantali and allied speciea, 488.

Tatler, 325.

Common Red-shank, 333.

700

GENERAL INDEX.

Tatler, Dusky Redshank, 328.

Green, 342.

Wood, 346.

Tatlers and allied species, 299.
Temniinck's Sandpiper, 232.
Tentatores, 9, 54.
Thick-billed Grey Goose, 589.
Thick-knee, 75.

Common, 77.

Bastard, 77.

Stone, 77.

Totanina;, 299.
Totanus, 325.

Calidris, 333

fuscus, 328.

Glareola, 346.

Oehropus, 342.

Towilhy, 237.
Trillachan, 152.

_ Traghaid, 152.

Tringa, 183.

Canutus, 185.

Cinclus, 203.

maritima, 197.

minuta, 227.

pectoralis, 190.

platj'rhyncha. 224.

rufcscens, 194.

Sehinzii, 222.

subarquata, 215.

Tcmminckii, 232.

Tringinoc, 161.

Tuchit, 133.
Turnstone, 141.

Collared, 143.

Urinatcres, 569.

Vanellus, 131.
Cristatus, 133.

Ware Goose, 629.
"Water Hen, 535.

Hen, Green-footed, 547.

Junket, 351.

Rail, 521.

Spotted, 535.

Weet-weet, 350.

Spotted, 356.

White-breasted, 351.

Whaap, 243.

Whaup. 243.
Whimbrel, 253.

Curle^r, 253.

"VNTiistling Plover, 94.

Swan, 659.

^STiitterick, 243.
White-breasted Weet-weet, 351.
White-checked Bernicle, 622.
White Egret, Little, 471.

Yellow-billed, 465.

"^Tiite- faced Bernicle Goose, 622.
White-fronted Goose, 609.
White Heron, Great, 465.
White Spoonbill, 503.

Wliite Stork, 481.

Wild Goose, 589, 595, 602.

Swan, 659.

Willvwicket, 351.
Woodcock, 384.

Common, 386.

Snipe, 364.

Wood Sandpiper, 346.

Tatler, 346.

Whooping Swan, 659.

Yarrwhelp, 260.

Yellow-billed ^Tiite Egret, 465.

Plover, 94.

Yelper, 306.

KND OF VOLUME VOURTH.

Hill mit HlfltWH IHnfliniliiUiniilllilinilHHJhi!

Hi'uiiiiiinUiiUU

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Full text of "A history of British birds, indigenous and migratory: including their organization, habits, and relation; remarks on classification and nomenclature; an account of the principal organs of birds, and observations relative to practical ornithology .."

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